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** Every age has its work, every man his mission, and every 
generation is a link in the chain of passing events." 

The development of Natural Science Study 
is the tendency in education at the present time. 
Whether we consider it from the standpoint of 
science teaching, laboratory work, sense training, 
object-study, elements of agriculture, nature 
study, etc., the progressive, up-to-date teacher 
must grapple with the problem of the selection of 
topics for the cultivation of the observing powers 
of children and the methods of teaching them, in 
order to be in harmony with the scientific civili- 
zation in which we live and with the spirit of 
modern education. 

In addition to this, it is not too much to say 
that when the matter of true elementary science 
instruction is once understood and made effective, 
the very effort put forth in the selection of topics 
und in their adaptation to the needs and require- 
ments of proper teaching will effect a solution of 
many problems in all subjects taught in the public 
schools. We refer, of course, to the power the 
student thus acquires and its effect upon peda- 
gogic methods. 

It would be neither interesting nor profitable 
to consider the history of this subject from its 
obscure beginnings. Doubtless Adam was an ob- 
server of natural phenomena, and the primitive 



NATURE-SCIENCE 



peoples followed Nature, but our study properly 
begins with a time when there was at least some 
semblance of method in education. 

In the history of education among the Greeks 
we find that Socrates believed that no science 
could be taught ; only drawn out. Aristotle was 
well versed in the natural sciences and almost all 
these were included in the vast programme of the 
instructions he himself gave in the Lyceum ; but, 
as his was an aristocratic system of education, it 
was restricted to a small minority. 

Roman education, too, was literary, ethical 
and prudential, rather than scientific, in the time 
of Quintilian, Plutarch and Marcus Aurelius. 

Religious training was the dominating charac- 
ter of the Middle Ages. 

The first introduction of what may be called 
modern education with special reference to the 
study of nature, was in the instruction of Rabe- 
lais, (1483-1553), and in his Gargantua, a collec- 
tion of pamphlets which appeared early in the 
sixteenth century. His pupils were taught to love 
and experience nature as well as to know her. 

It remained for Comenius, (1592-1671), in the 
first half of the seventeenth century, to apply the 
principles of modern instruction which embody 
natural science study. Comenius said three hun- 
dred years ago, ''We must offer to the young, not 
the shadow of things, but the things themselves, 
which impress the senses and the imagination. 
Instruction should commence with a real observa- 
tion of things, and not with a verbal description, 
of them." 



AND AGRICULTURE. 



The first classical work of French pedagogy- 
was written by Fenelon (1651-1715) in the latter 
part of the seventeenth century. In his valuable 
treatise, "On the Education of Girls", he dis- 
played his knowledge of the aid to be derived 
from object lessons. He says : — "Curiosity in chil- 
dren is a natural tendency which comes as the 
precursor of instruction. Do not fail to take ad- 
vantage of it. For example, in the country they 
see a mill, and they wish to know what it is. 
They should be shown the manner of preparing 
the food that is needed for human use. They 
notice harvesters, and what they are doing should 
be explained to them; also, how the wheat is 
sown, and how it multiplies in the earth." 

No event in the eighteenth century is fraught 
with more importance to the educational world 
than the publication of Rousseau's Emile. The 
whole would bear quoting, for all his recommen- 
dations contain at least an element of truth. In 
reference to the physical sciences he says: "You 
are looking for globes, spheres, maps. What ma- 
-chines! Why all these representations? Why 
not begin by showing him the object itself?" 
And again : "Do not treat the child to discourses 
which he cannot understand. No descriptions, no 
eloquence, no figures of speech. Be content to 
present to him appropriate objects. Let us 
transform our sensations into ideas. Let us al- 
ways proceed slowly from one sensible notion to 
another. In general let us never substitute the 
sign for the thing, except when it is impossible 
for us to show the thing." 



NATURE-SCIENCE 



In Germany, from the opening of the eight- 
eenth century, "a change for the better takes 
place. Ideas become facts. The importance of ed- 
ucation bocomes more and more recognized ; ped- 
agogy shakes off the latent dust of the school 
and interests itself in actual life." 

The beginning of a more liberal spirit was 
with Basedow (1723-1790). The criticism upon his 
work, however, is that the use of object lessons 
was overdone. 

A review of the life and work of Pestalozzi 
would be helpful, as embodying and establishing 
in a very large measure, the principles of modern 
educational ideas. "We can give only a brief ref- 
erence to this celebrated educator. 

It is, perhaps, in the institute at Burgdorf 
(1802), that we see exemplified most satisfactorily 
the natural method of instruction * 'which makes 
the child proceed from his own intuitions, and 
leads him by degress and through his own efforts, 
to abstract ideas." Natural history was studied 
during walks and in the fields. Practically the 
same methods were pursued at Yverdun (1805- 
1825). 

'"To popularize science" was one of the five 
essentials in Pestalozzi 's system as distinguished 
by the philanthropist, Fischer ; two of the remain- 
ing four essentials may be construed to have ref- 
erence to the principles involved in elementary 
science-teaching. 

Pestalozzi said of his own work, "My method 
is but a refinement of the processes of nature." 
A more modern writer has even ventured the crit- 



AND AGRICULTURE. 



icism that he refined too much, since he some- 
times made an abuse of sense intuition. 

Froebel, who had spent two years at Y verdun 
with Pestalozzi, was in most respects, his faithful 
follower. Greard, in his study of the method of 
Froebel, places the taste for observation as the 
first aspiration of a child. It is evident, also, 
that Froebel places nature above everything else 
in the elements of education. He says : "Teach- 
ers should scarcely let a week pass without taking 
to the country a part of their pupils. They shall 
walk with them as father among his children, — 
in making them observe and admire the varied 
richness which nature displays to their eyes at 
each season of the year." 

Among English writers of the nineteenth 
century, Herbert Spencer made a notable step 
toward a rational pedagogy in his book on Educa- 
tion. In this work he makes science the basis of 
education and emphasizes its importance in family 
life as well as in aesthetic education. He also 
shows that for moral education, as well as for in- 
tellectual, the method Avhich approaches nature 
nearest is also the best. 

Mention may be made also of the work of 
Alexander Bain on Education as a Science. Al- 
though his ideas of education have been criticized 
as exclusively scientific, they are evidently sin- 
cere and his book possesses the merits of a studied 
analysis and scholarly minuteness which have 
doubtless helped to shape the present tendency 
towards scientific thought. 

In America, we might point to an array of 



.18 NATURE-SCIENCE 

leaders in advanced pedagogical methods, notably 
the late Col. Francis W. Parker, Dr. W.T. Harris 
and others, whose recognition and adaptation of 
the methods having Nature Study for a founda- 
tion are well known and not without far-reaching 
influence in the educational world. 

It will be seen that educational ideas, as re- 
lating to certain first principles, are of long stand- 
ing. It will be naturally inferred that any ten- 
dency in modern educational thought is toward 
the putting into practice rules deduced from these 
first principles. 

We believe the present century will carry 
forward processes simplified during the past cen- 
tury, and elementary science has a place pecu- 
liarly and peremptorily its own in the general 
scheme of educational progress. More than this, 
we believe that most studies may be more ad- 
vantageously pursued by making application of 
the methods employed in scientific instruction; 
that preliminary work in the training of the mind 
by the use of natural objects is the best prepara- 
tion for most studies that are to follow. 

A learner's introduction to the world in which 
he lives must come through the senses. He has 
a right to know about the earth and the living 
things it supports, since his well-being and his 
usefulness depend upon this knowledge ; and the 
proper training in observation, sense-training, if 
you please, by personal contact and experience 
with the forms and forces which constitute and 
govern the universe is the only way in which he 
<;an acquire this knowledge. 



AND AGRICULTURE. 



One purpose accomplished in natural science 
study is the formation of habits of close observa- 
tion. The senses become developed, acute and 
strong ; materials for a comparison in future work 
are acquired; a spirit of inquiry and investiga- 
tion is aroused ; the laws of nature are discovered ; 
the utilities of natural products are revealed. 

A natural result is a gradual comprehension 
of the system and order prevalent in the universe, 
which in maturer work we know as scientific 
classification. 

It is altogether in keeping with the results of 
such study to say that the mental powers make a 
steady, healthful growth, and there is satisfactory 
progress in the attainment of exactness and free- 
dom in expression, a natural result of thoughtful 
consideration and an observant mind replete with 
facts. 

It has been conclusively shown, too, that after 
preliminary science work, carried forward in a 
systematic way, advanced pupils have gone to the 
study of books with ease and profit. 

It is not difficult to conceive that much plea- 
sure and happiness may be the result of contact 
with the beautiful and the true, in both the or- 
ganic and the inorganic, in nature ; that this will 
have a tendency, through wise encouragement and 
direction, to keep out low pleasures during the 
formative period of childhood, and so foster, 
largely, an interest in pure and ennobling things 
which will extend into mature life. This is the 
testimony of those instructors who have tested the 
matter, and more than all, it is exemplified in the 



10 NATURE-SCIENCE 

lives of many of the pupils who have had the ad- 
vantages of such teaching. 

The broad aim of science studies is stated by 
an excellent authority on this subject as "a re- 
sponsive insight into nature, an interested under- 
standing of the materials and activities of her 
great workshop, and appreciation of the variety, 
beauty, harmony and law of nature's handiwork." 
Another makes "the unity of science, with life 
the central study," the basal idea upon which his 
work has been prepared. 

We quote from Joseph Payne (''The Curricu- 
lum of Modern Education," pp. 18, 19): "If 
science, then, is to constitute a real discipline for 
the mind, much, nay everything, will depend on 
the manner in which it is studied. In the first 
place, it is to be remembered that the pupil is 
about to study things, not words ; and therefore 
treatises on science are not, in the first instance, 
to be placed before him. He must commence 
with the accurate examination of the objects and 
phenomena themselves, not of descriptions of them 
prepared by others. By this means, not only will 
his attention be excited, the power of observation 
previously awakened, much strengthened, and the 
senses exercised and disciplined, but the very im- 
portant habit of doing homage to the authority of 
facts, rather than to the authority of men, be 
initiated. These different objects and phenomena 
may be placed and viewed together and thus the 
mental habits of comparison and discrimination 
may be usefully practiced. They may, in the next 
place, be methodically arranged and classified, 



AND AGRICULTURE. 11 



and thus the mind may become accustomed to an 
orderly arrangement of its knowledge. Then the 
accidental may be distinguished from the essen- 
tial, the common from the special, and so the 
habit of generalization may be acquired; and 
lastly, advancing from effects to causes, or con- 
versely from principles to their necessary conclu- 
sions, the pupil becomes acquainted with induc- 
tion and deduction — processes of the highest 
value and importance. It is no small advantage, 
moreover, that this kind of study affords, both in 
in its pursuit and in its results — both in the chase 
and the capture — a very large amount of legiti- 
mate and generous mental pleasure, and of a kind 
which the pupil will probably be desirous of re- 
newing for himself after he has left school." 

These are quoted as the words of a leader in 
educational thought who wrote and wrought for 
thinking, progressive teachers of the present 
generation; they are fraught with significance and 
replete in suggestion for the work we have in 
hand. 

The outline of work which follows is arranged 
for the purpose of suggesting topics which may be 
used to advantage. 

The subject of agriculture is so intimately 
connected with elementary science that a portion 
of each paper will be devoted to that particular 
phase of the study. It deals with living nature 
and all lines of elementary science may be easily 
studied in connection with it. 

Peculiar circumstances or conditions will de- 
termine largely the development of any topic by 



12 NATURE-SCIENCE 

«ach individual. The earnest teacher will be on 
the alert, always, to obtain other material, as 
well as to be thoroughly informed, not only as to 
the topic under discussion, but upon the devices 
adapted to the proper development of the topic, 
so that his pupils may be led to a solution of the 
problems for themselves. To this end the teacher 
should keep constantly in mind any necessary pre- 
paration on the part of the pupil, adapting the 
nature and amount of work done to the con- 
ditions, as well as to the age and capabilities of 
the pupils. 

The pupils should be brought, as nearly as 
possible, in direct contact with nature, and only 
such work should be assigned as they can either 
do for themselves, or at least take the leading 
part in doing. It should be remembered that the 
principal object is to lead pupils to rely on their 
own powers ; the teacher should furnish the proper 
opportunities and guidances, when such are 
necessary. 

First Lesson. 

Distinguish between plants and animals. 
Both are organic, i. e., made up of organs; both 
have life ; both breathe ; both require food ; 
(What difference in the way they take their 
food?) Both are made up of tiny cells very much 
alike. (The chief difference between the cells of 
vegetables and those of animals is that vegetable 
cells grow together without any substance be- 
tween them, and animal cells generally have a 
second substance connecting them). It is well, 



AND AGRICU LTURE. IS 

also, to develop the terms nucleus, and proto- 
plasm in connection with the animal cell. 

ANIMALS. 

Birds. — Note what the birds are doing in your 
locality at this time, and in what respects the 
young birds resemble their parents as to appear- 
ance and actions. Observe what birds have dis- 
appeared that you noticed during the summer. 
Keep a memorandum of the times of migration of 
any birds and try to discover why the influence 
which cause some birds to migrate have no such 
effect on others. 

Insects. — Watch the ant at work ; the care of 
ants for young. Collect as many caterpillars as 
possible ; watch their manner of eating, growth, 
moulting, spinning of cocoon at formation of 
chrysalides. Study insects especially with refer- 
ence to their manner of eating. Different kinds 
of mouths different insects have. Learn chief 
differences between those which spend their time 
in the open air and those that live under stones, 
logs, etc. ; ex., differences between butterflies 
and beetles. Find what insects must have liquid 
food, and what ones can take solid food. Learn 
all that is possible about the way the butterfly 
gets its food (how, and from what). Compare a 
butterfly's flight with that of a bird, and try to 
account for the difference. 

Different kinds of beetles should be studied. 
They may be kept under stones in a box with 
dirt. The potato beetle is especially interesting 
for detailed study. Many beetles and their 



14 NATURE-SCIENCE 

larvae may be found in old stumps or under the 
loose bark of trees. Study their structure and 
learn their life history in such a way that you 
may be able to give important facts in an inter- 
esting way to pupils when necessary to interest 
them or to supplement their work. 

Study the lady beetle. Water beetles are 
also very interesting subjects of study. Obtain 
specimens and watch their manner of swimming, 
the way they breathe under water, adaptation of 
structure to habits, etc. 

It is suggested also that the larrae of the 
milkweed butterfly and also the eggs are, in most 
localities, available for study. Examine the eggs 
with reference to form, color, etc. Watch closely 
for the appearance of the young larvae, note their 
growth, manner of moulting, etc. The ways by 
which larvae protect themselves from their ene- 
mies will make an interesting topic for a class 
lesson. 

For a grade of class work above the primary, 
probably the fifth or sixth school year's work, it 
would be well to make a special topic of the rela- 
tion of animal life to plants. 

Several kinds of insect galls may be found on 
plants. A collection of as many kinds as possible 
should be made. Develop (a) the way galls are 
formed; (b) object of formation of galls, as pro- 
tection, food; (c) different kinds of galls. 

No opportunity should be lost from the very 
beginning to inculcate lessons with reference to 
animal protection. 

In higher grades of work, the structure of 



AND AGRICULTURE. 15 

some typical insect, as the grasshopper, may well 
be taken up, and some attempt at least may be 
made in classification. Life habits of typical in- 
sects should receive due attention and there 
should be frequent reviews on this point. 

Collect caterpillars (larvae) of different kinds 
and place them in small boxes covered with light 
netting. Feed them with the leaves of the plant 
on which they were found. Study them and note 
their development. 

Worms. — Observe how worms plug their bur- 
rows with leaves, etc. Why? Note any other 
interesting facts in connection with their actions 
and habits. 

Tadpoles. — Note the different stages of devel- 
opment in which tadpoles are to be found ; how 
they breathe; what they eat; what enemies they 
have. 

Plants. — The plant as a whole. Study the 
plant, for the most part, out of doors. The sub- 
ject is best introduced to children ,by means of 
stories as far as possible. The use of a plant, its 
work, etc., should be developed before the plant 
is studied in detail. 

Parts of a plant: — 1. Root — Use, (a) to feed 
plant; (b) to hold plant in position. Kinds, (a) 
Fleshy; (b) Fibrous. Functions — gripping, stor- 
age. (At this time do only elementary work in 
the study of plants.) 

2. Stem— 1. Use; 2. What it is made of; 
(a) woody material; (b) juicy material. Com- 
pare as to shape. Outside and inside growers — 
compare corn and maple. 



16 NATURE-SOIENCE 

3. Leaves — Kinds, shapes, parts. 

4. Flower — Parts, use. Study fall flowers, 
simple and composite. 

Study for special topic the spread of plant 
life — (1) by the scattering of seeds ; (2) by growth 
of underground stem 

1. Scattering of seeds — (a) seeds carried by 
wind; (b) plants carried by wind; (c) distribu- 
tion by animals. Note in each case the locality 
in which the plant grows; whether the plant is 
solitary or social; the method by which it will 
be likely to be most widely distributed ; what per 
cent of the seeds produced make new plants ; 
differences in numbers of seeds produced by 
plants growing in wet and dry regions. 

2. The underground stem. Differences be- 
tween annuals and perennials should be explained 
by illustration. Roots of perennials may be ex- 
amined and new buds seen. What conditions can 
a plant propagating by means of an underground 
stem meet more successfully than a plant propa- 
gating by seeds? 

What is a weed? Why do weeds spread more 
readily than cultivated plants? 

Conditions affecting the life of any plant; 
(1) water; (2) heat; (3) soil. 

Study as many different kinds of flowers as 
possible, noting kinds of insects that frequent 
flowers and adaptation for fertilization. The 
form, colorization, etc., always have some signifi- 
cance. 

Note adaptation for cross fertilization ; ripen- 
ing of stamens and pistil of the same flower at 



AND AGRICULTURE. 17 

different times. Make list of insects that visit 
flowers — bees, butterfles, flies, beetles, ants, etc. 

Study also in their adaptation for insects — 1. 
(a) provisions of food; (b) attractive color; (c) 
odor; (d) form and position of parts; 2. con- 
trivance for excluding unwelcome visitors — (a) 
hairs on stems; (b) sticky substance on stems; 
(c) arrangement of parts of flower to prevent en- 
trance of creeping insects. Are any plants free 
from insects? Why? 

Select a number of fleshy fruits for study and 
note in what respect they are alike. Learn the 
meaning, relations and structure of the following 
terms : Pericarp, epicarp, endocarp, mesocarp, 
sarcocarp, embryo, cell, ovary, dissepiments, 
placenta. 

Note different colors of fruits and colors at 
different stages of development; appropriateness 
of color to the particular fruit ; parts most highly 
colored. 

Keep in mind the wild state of the fruits in ac- 
counting for the characteristics. Note parts de- 
veloped by cultivation. What parts of the flower 
form the fruit in each kind of fruit studied? 

Physics. — Make experiments in refraction of 
light, using a simple prism. Call attention to the 
changes the prism makes in the ray of light, 
breaking it up into a number of rays of different 
colors. The fact that the colored rays vary in 
their deviation from a straight line with the sun- 
light that enters the prism is due to their differ- 
ent wave lengths after entering the denser me- 
dium. Note which rays are nearest a straight 



18 NATURE-SCIENCE 

line with the sunlight, and which are farthest 
from it. See how many colors can be distin- 
guished. 

Make simple experiments in magnetism, such 
as placing a magnet under a paper on which are 
placed some iron filings. Notice that each parti- 
cle of the iron becomes a perfect magnet, also 
note the peculiar action of the filings when the 
magnet is moved beneath the paper. Magnetize 
a needle and by properly adjusting it upon a cork 
floating on water, or by thrusting it through a 
cork and suspending by a thread, show the prop- 
erties of the magnetic needle. All the phenomena 
it exhibits, as well as practical applications of the 
same, may be developed as the occasion and the 
advancement of the learner admit, such as the 
direction it assumes; the fact that after magnetiza- 
tion it will not balance at the same point as before 
(the dip of the needle) ; the action of the magnet 
on each end of the needle ; which pole of the 
needle is attracted by the north pole of magnet 
and which by the south pole ; idea of compass ; 
directions shown by needle ; direction of wind ; 
direction toward various places, etc., use in test- 
ing for iron and steel, etc. 

Chemistry: — Study and observe phenomena of 
fermentation. This can be done by placing a small 
quantity of sweet cider in several bottles, placing 
these subject to different conditions, and noting 
which conditions are most favorable to changes 
which will thus be illustrated during fermenta- 
tion. 

Alcoholic fermentation produces what is known 



AND AGRICULTURE. 19 

as ''hard" cider. This change is due to the yeast 
plant which breaks up by its growth the sugar of 
the sweet cider into alcohol, carbonic acid gas, 
etc. Afterward, the change to vinegar is known 
as acetic fermentation. 

Note the taste and color of the cider when 
first prepared. Some bottles should be left open, 
others corked ; some in a warm, others in a cool 
place, etc. The bubbles which rise from the 
liquid during fermentation contain carbonic acid 
gas. The action of a flame, as from a lighted 
taper, when placed in a vessel partly filled with 
the fermenting liquid, or by forcing some of the 
^as into lime water and noting the change. 

Meteorology. 

A weather record should be prepared and kept 
throughout the year. The design is to draw at- 
tention to the climatic changes from day to day. 
The records should be kept in a book, using one 
page for each month. From the daily mean tempera- 
ture compute the mean temperature for the month. 

A convenient form for a weather record, sug- 
gested by the Illinois State Course of Study, is 
made by ruling one column of the page for the 
date; another section under temperature should 
be ruled into four columns, one to give the read- 
ing of the thermometer at 9 a. m., one at noon, 
one at 4 p. m. and the fourth the mean or average 
reading; a third section ruled into three columns 
should indicate the direction of the wind ; another 
like section should be marked "Clouds"; and an- 
other "Rain or Snow"; in all of which data as to 



20 NATURE-SCIENCE 

these particulars may be indicated for the three 
times of the day by an appropriate symbol. 

GEOLOGICAL STUDIES. 

Soils. — Influence on Vegetation; (1) by the 
character of food supply; (2) by the temperature' 
afforded to the roots. 

Physical differences of soil ; (1) coarse or fine ; 
(2) porous or compact. Which have greater food- 
furnishing power, fine soils or coarse soils? Why?' 
Which are more easily cultivated, porous soils or 
compact soils? 

What difference between these two kinds of 
soils as to moisture? As to heat? 

Soils are formed by fine particles of rock 
mixed with decaying animal or vegetable sub- 
stances, hence they vary in the proportions of 
plant food. Therefore, all soils are not chemically 
the same. 

Clay soils are formed from decomposition of 
slate and various rocks, including volcanic rocks. 
The latter contains more or less of a mixture of 
sand and mica. 

Marl is a soil whose mixture consists of car- 
bonate of lime, clay and sand, in very variable 
proportions, and accordingly known as calcareous, 
clayey or sandy limestone. Soils are marly if sand 
is present, as are those whose base is sandstone if 
carbonate of lime was the cementing material as 
is usually the case. 

Loam is a mixture of clay and sand with or- 
ganic matter. 

Soils are called native if their base is formedi 



AND AGRICULTURE. 21 

from the decomposition of the parent rock below 
them ; foreign if they have been washed or drifted 
from the place of disintegration of the parent 
rock. Nearly all the soil of the Northern States 
is foreign. 

Agriculture. — (L. agri. genitive of ager, a field, 
and culture, to till, to cultivate.) Culture of a 
field is the term applied to the business of raising 
farm or field products, including, of course, the 
'disposition of the products in the markets. Farm- 
ing and husbandry are terms used in the similar 
sense, although their use, usually, is restricted to 
the practical phase of this most fundamental of 
occupations. 

Agriculture contributes to the well-being of 
the civilized world mostly in the way of food pro- 
duction. Although the general subject may be 
-divided and subdivided into a variety of special 
subjects, we shall aim to give the essentials in a 
general way to cover the most important portions 
of it, dealing with the principles which govern in 
the practical application of the term agricuiture. 

The consideration of the subject must begin 
with the soil, as that is the source of the produc- 
tion of agricultural wealth which may be con- 
trolled or modified to meet required conditions. 
The other sources, not subject to control, are the 
atmosphere and sunlight. 

Soil is composed of the fragments of rock, 
primarily mixed with organic matter, that is, the 
remains of plants and animals. It is evident that 
the nature of soil, then, depends upon the amount, 
the condition and the kind of rock which forms its 



32 NATURE-SCIENCE 

basis, and the amount of moisture and organic 
matter it contains. 

The process of weathering, by means of which 
rock waste falls from cliff's and other elevations, and 
rolls, washes and settles down to lower levels, de- 
pressions, etc., is a familiar one. 

Most movements of land wastes are so slow 
that they are not noticed. Their importance is 
understood when we reflect that many land forms 
result from the removal of waste. 

This rock waste is due to a number of processes, 
as, changes of temperature, the expansion of 
water as it freezes in the crevices of the rock, 
chemical changes under the action of water and 
air, erosion by streams, etc. 

The action, both as to the formation and to- 
the removal of waste, is greatest near the surface, 
since the agencies are obviously more effective 
here. Then again, on gentle surface slopes, such. 
as plains, the waste may become deep, since it& 
removal is slow, and the particles become finer 
because of longer exposure and the result is a fine 
deep soil of great advantage to many forms of 
vegetation. Examples of this class of soil are 
abundant in the alluvial ''bottoms" of the Mis- 
sissippi valley. 

A contrast, too, in the fertility of soil weath- 
ered from limestone and that in which sandstone 
is the base, may be observed in certain regions as 
in Central Kentucky and in Western Tennessee. 
The limestone soil is fertile, while that on the 
sandstone is comparatively barren. 

The value of farming lands, then, depends 



AND AGRICULTURE. 23 

upon whether they lie on rocks that yield rich or 
poor soils, or whether they lie in a position to re- 
ceive transported soils which have escaped the 
vigilance of the farmer who occupies the neigh- 
boring uplands. 

There are some soils which have an almost 
purely organic origin. This is true of most SAvamps, 
peat bogs, etc., formed by decayed water plants. 
The little mineral matter contained in such soils 
is that which comes mainly from the plants which 
grow therein. 

Growing plants facilitate the work of soil-mak- 
ing in several ways: (1) Their roots are sent 
between the layers of rock and into the crevices 
of the rocks themselves and their great expansive 
power crowds the rocks apart and breaks them to 
fragments. (2) The acids in the root glands also 
dissolve the rock and earthy matter. (3) The 
decaying plants, as well as the animal matter, 
form mold, also, which makes the soil mellow and 
renders it chemically fit for plant food while it 
aids in the retention of moisture, in the admission 
of the air, and in other processes. 

In addition to this, bacteria have much to do 
with the decomposition and enrichment of the 
soil, for it is now known that they penetrate into 
the soil and exist there as well as upon its sur- 
face. (We shall discuss micro-organisms more 
fully in relation to other subjects.) 

Thus the soil is prepared and the materials 
for plant food are made ready in nature. It re- 
mains for the husbandman to see that proper con- 
ditions for plant life are maintained, or in other 



24 NATURE-SOIENCE 

words, to make successful application of human 
endeavor to the production of plant life without 
impoverishing the soil. 

CHARACTER AND COMPOSITION OF THE SOIL. 

Plants require food, and the soil is their great 
food store-house. This food is not always present 
in the soil in the form which the plants can use ; 
sometimes there is none at all where it is most 
needed. The problem for progressive farm- 
ers is to supply these deficiencies where possible. 

In addition to what has already been said as 
to the soil formation — the mixture of rock dust 
and decayed organic life — we must consider also, 
in the requirement for plant life, soil moisture 
and soil atmosphere. The atmosphere the soil pro- 
vides ; the plant contains more water vapor, more 
nitrogen, and more carbon dioxid than that re- 
quired for the sustenance of animal life. 

The plant receives from the soil plant-food 
containing from one per cent to ten per cent of its 
weight of the following elements : Phosphorus, 
nitrogen, iron, sulphur, potassium, calcium, mag- 
nesium, chlorine, silica and sodium. It also re- 
ceives from the air, through its leaves, from 
ninety to ninety-nine per cent of its weight of car- 
bon, hydrogen and oxygen. 

It is easily seen that a proper preparation of 
plant-food that is taken in through the roots nec- 
essarily requires that there must be circulation of 
the atmosphere in the soil. 

Most soils contain the necessary elements, but 
it is possible for plants to grow, in a partially 



AND AGRICULTURE. 25 

starved way, in the soils where some of these ele- 
ments do not exist, or where they are not in 
proper proportion. The favorable growth of plants 
depends upon the condition of the soil and the 
composition of the food elements. 

These elements are not used by the plants 
separately, but are absorbed when in composition 
with other elements. For example, the plant ab- 
sorbs ammonia and thus secures its most import- 
ant food, nitrogen, in combination with hydrogen, 
which it also needs. Nitrogen is given to the soil 
by decaying organic matter through nitrifying 
ferments or bacteria, and by leguminous plants, 
as clover, alfalfa, cow-peas, etc. These plants 
supply nitrogen through the agency of bacteria, 
or germs, that live in the nodules of the roots and 
exract the nitrogen from the air and fix it in the 
soil as a compound. 

The next most important element is phospho- 
ric acid, which renders the plant fruitful and 
hardy. It is the most important mineral constit- 
uent of the soil and is used to a great extent by 
the cereals. It is supplied to the plant through 
decaying vegetation or through bones, etc., which 
have been prepared by acids to make phosphoric 
acid soluble (acid phosphate.) 

Potash, which makes starch and woody tissue, 
hence needed by fruit trees and root plants, may 
be supplied by applying wood ashes to the soil. 
Barnyard manures also supplies potash in a soluble 
state. 

Oxygen is found in a free state in the soil. 



26 NATUEE-SCIENOE 

and also in combination with nearly all the other 
elements. 

Hydrogen is foud in combination in the soil. 
Combined with oxygen it forms water, absolutely 
necessary to plant life and growth. 

Carbon is a part of the organic matter in the 
soil. It unites with oxygen and passes back into 
the air in the process of decay. It is obtained by 
plants mainly from the carbon dioxid of the air 
through the leaves and other green parts. 

Iron exists in the soil both in a free state 
and in combination. It is quite abundant in most 
soils, and while it adds nothing to the plant tissue 
it is thought to stimulate plant growth. The 
disease known as "chlorosis", or the production 
of yellow foliage instead of normal green leaves, 
has for its most common cause the lack of availa- 
ble iron — either its absence altogether from the 
soil, or the failure of the roots to dissolve and ab- 
sorb such compounds as may be present. 

OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

[first paper.] 

1. How early in the world's history did sci- 
ence study receive consideration? 

2. Name two prominent men among the 
Greeks who believed in science teaching. Two 
Romans? 

3. What may be considered the first intro 
duction to elementary science study? 

4. What were the ideas of Comenius on this 
subject? Of Fenelon? 



. AND AGEICULTURE. 2T 

6. How did German educational ideas take 
this tendency? 

6. How were Pestalozzi's classes introduced? 

7. What importance did Froebel attach to 
nature? Herbert Spencer? 

8. Name some prominent American educa- 
tors who recognize the importance of nature study? 

9. What IS sense training? How secured? 

7* Sow does elementary science work con- 
tribute to the accomplishment of better work in 
other studies? 

^ 11. What is the broad aim of elementary 
science study? Some special aims? 

12. How should this work be carried out? 

13. How much of the work should be done 
by the teacher? By the pupils? 

14. What are the main differences between 
plants and animals? 

15 What is agriculture? Why should this 
subject be studied in schools? 
^ 16. Why does the consideration of this sub- 
ject begin with the soil? 

17. How do plants assist in soil making? 

18. What can you say of bacteria in their re- 
lation to the soil? 

19. What are the soil elements necessary to 
plant growth? ^ 

20. What is the function of iron in the soil? 



[second paper.] 

''And the value of all things exists^ not indeed in themselves^ 
but man's use of them, feeding man's need/' 

SECOND LESSON. 
Animals. 

Birds. — Study for this lesson the migration of 
birds. It is interesting to note that some, as 
those which nest in the far northern portion of 
this continent, travel a very long distance to reach 
their winter abode in the Southern States^ 
Others which nest in that region winter in the- 
northern part of the United States, and still others^ 
nesting in the middle and western states, are only- 
summer residents spending their winters in the 
Southern States, and some even as far south as 
South America, then again there are others which 
have a permanent abode in the locality where 
they nest, adapting themselves to all the climatic 
changes, while still others which were at one time 
migratory, now remain throughout the winter. 
Some, hardy enough to remain throughut the win- 
ter, migrate, and others seem to indulge their fancy, 
going or remaining according to seeming whim. 
Robins and bluebirds are examples of the latter.. 

The cause of migration is explained in various 
ways. The first is to seek a change of climate, 
going south to avoid severe cold. Such birds re- 
turn northward in the spring doubtless to separate 
themselves, to conceal their nest, during the time 
of nesting. In such cases the young birds- 



so NATURE-SOIENCE 

especially would have a tendency to remain in 
their native region until driven southward by cold 
and famine, especially the latter. When food is 
abundant it is well known that many southern 
birds learn to endure the rigorous nothern winters. 

Another theory of migration is based on the 
hypothesis that many birds north of the equator 
originated on the continents near the north pole 
at a period when that region was tropical in 
■climate as it may be clearly proved to have been. 
As the conditions changed and the earth there 
became ice-covered, the birds could not temper 
themselves to the climate and the ice fields 
afforded them no food. They were therefore 
forced to flee southward. As the ice fields receded 
with the summer, the birds would move north- 
ward and build their nests as near as possible to 
their old location. In this way we may say the 
habit was established, and now, while climatic 
changes are more regular and conditions more per- 
manent, many birds continue to follow it. 

Still other causes of migration may be found 
in a necessity for new food fields, in the fear 
caused by the wholesale slaughter of certain 
species, in some localities, and a desire for variety 
or a roving disposition on the part of some birds. 

Pupils should be encouraged to continue ob- 
servations on the migration of birds in their 
particular locality and note the same with any 
peculiarities, as, (1) those peculiar to that region 
which migrate first in the fall; (2) those which 
remain longer than usual with probable reason for 
BO doing ; (3) those ordinarily migratory but now 



AND AGRICULTURE. 31 

remaining throughout the winter, etc. We quote 
from a recent article by an authority on this sub- 
ject of the migration of birds : 

'*The present international study of bird 
migration is not only in many particulars the 
greatest concerted scientific inquiry ever insti- 
tuted, but it is the most baffling subject that 
naturalists have ever undertaken to exploit. 
Many of the most eminent among the current in- 
vestigators reject all previous deductions in re- 
gard to the causes of migration. Fear of cold and 
hunger has been assigned as the motive that 
prompts birds to leave the north in wintertime ; 
but contemporaneous ornithologists cannot accept 
this unqualifiedly, for vast multitudes are known 
to depart from regions in which no such contin- 
gency prevails. Moreover, species of the limicolae 
and other genera instead of stopping when they 
reach congenial north temperate latitudes press 
on and on, enter the tropics, cross the equator, 
and do not rest until they find in the south tem- 
perate zone conditions of climate and supplies of 
food exactly like those passed in north temperate 
regions. Longing for the old nesting-place has 
been assigned by many writers as the secret of 
the birds' return over seas and continents to the 
spot of their nativity, but this, modern naturalists 
point out, does not account for the amazing fact 
that nestlings of many species in the autumn 
migration leave the parental home months in ad- 
vance of the old birds, and without a pilot, spread 
their young wings and start on voyages from two 



32 NATUKE-SOIENCE 

to nine thousand miles in length, arriving safely 
at the ordained winter home. 

Neither can the love of birds for their mates 
be accepted as the dominating purpose of migra- 
tion, for in the case of nestlings, in whom the in- 
stinct of world-journeying is so strong that they 
embark without a captain and when their wings 
are but a few weeks old, there is no lure of a tryst 
in the far corners of the earth to explain their 
amazing pilgrimage. Some French naturalists 
have decided that it is a craving for more light 
that prompts a flight tow^ard the south when the 
days shorten in the north countries. 

Another view is that bird migration is a proof 
of the polar origin of life. As the North Pole 
cooled, life developed, some of it evolving into 
bird forms, and there began to be a slight move- 
ment toward warmer areas in the winters. 
Gradually the earth cooled throughout, the bird 
migrations extending, and now, except in the case 
of certain acclimated species, there is spontaneous 
return in spring toward the primitive fountains of 
all world life. Inasmuch, however, as recent ex- 
plorations indicate that certain birds summer in 
Antarctic regions, the North Pole theory would ap- 
pear to be in need of revision. 

After years of study devoted to the topic, 
Professor Alfred Newton, of Cambridge, stated in 
1878 that without doubt, bird migration is the 
greatest mystery in the entire animal kingdom — 
"a mystery," he added, "that can be no more ex- 
plained by the modern man of science than by the 
simple-minded savage of antiquity." 



AND AGRICULTURE. 33 

In spite of all their accumulated knowledge 
on the subject, the most progressive ornithologists 
confess that the facts of bird migration are as incom- 
prehensible as if these restless wanderers had sud- 
denly arrived from some distant planet. The 
latest theories overturn previous deductions, many 
of the observers now claiming that none of the 
visible marks of the earth's configuration guide 
the birds at the times of their migrations along 
aerial routes, sometimes three miles above the 
walks of man. Though Doctor Gatke takes the 
lead in setting forth many of these phenomena, 
he makes no pretense of solving the riddle. In 
regard to the problem of the altitude and velocity 
of bird flight Capt. F. W. Hutton says, in his 
Mechanical Principles Involved in the Sailing 
Flight of the Albatross, that in a perfectly calm 
atmosphere this bird with outstretched wings 
would drop, unless it were also executing a for- 
ward movement. Doctor Gatke, however, sum- 
ming up his lifelong studies, says : "My observa- 
tions are so much at variance with all explana- 
tions based on known mechanical laws that I am 
obliged to consider the question of migratory 
flight as yet an unsolved and perfectly open one." 

Insects. — The grasshopper may be taken as a 
study of the typical insect for anatomical exami- 
nation. Remember, we are studying life through 
its manifestations in the organic part of our work, 
and the teacher should lead the pupil to select 
data from which intelligent conclusions are to be 
drawn. One of the main ideas of this work is the 
comprehension of natural laws, phenomena, etc., 



34 NATURE-SCIENCE ^ 

■and there is less danger of loss of time and energy 
if there is some attempt to study types with a 
view to preparation for classification. 

The grasshopper should be studied first in the 
"fields ; his movements, his habitat, his food, his 
means of protection, etc., should be noted. Dead 
•specimens should then be examined for the char- 
«.cteristic parts of insects. Eggs of the grass- 
hopper may be obtained by putting some grass- 
hoppers in a box containing moist dirt and fresh 
grass. The eggs will be deposited in the dirt. 

Comparisons may be made between the grass- 
hopper and the cricket, the katydid, etc. Try to 
.account for contrasts in color of these insects. 

BOTANICAL STUDIES. 

Study plant stems. 1. Their functions; (a) 
To support the plant; (b) To supply the leaves of 
^he plant with water. In connection with the 
«tudy of the first function different plants should 
be examined and comparisons made as to the 
relative development of the woody tissue, color, 
thickness, etc., of bark, arrangement of leaves on 
the stems, etc. Collections of specimens of differ- 
ent kinds of stems in the locality should be en- 
couraged. These may be sufficiently light to be con- 
veniently and tastefully mounted, and while the 
main body of each specimen may show exterior 
characteristics, one extremity may be so trimmed 
as to exhibit cross section and the other longi- 
tudinal section of each stem. 

Experiments may be made in connection with 
the study of the second function to show that water 



AND AGRICULTURE. 35 



will rise in the stem : (a) Wrap the wilted leaf 
of a plant, as a twig of geranium, closely in tissue 
paper, leaving the lower part of the stem exposed. 
Place the stem in water and presently the ex- 
pansion of the leaves, caused by the rise of the 
water through the stem, will burst the paper. 
{h) Place one end of a piece of cornstalk in colored 
water. After a time it will be seen that the col- 
oring matter is diffused through the stem. 

2. Study the structure of stems with relation 
to their performance of these two functions : (a) 
The use of woody tissue; (b) Different arrange- 
ment of fibro-vascular tissue; (c) Compare the 
cornstalk with the maple stem and note the dif- 
ferent ways these stems increase in size, and lead 
pupils to understand that the one is outside 
.grower (exogen), and the other an inside grower 
(endogen); (d) Call attention to difference in 
venation. (Do not hesitate to introduce technical 
terms after facts are learned.) (e) Study function 
of the bark and call attention to the rings of 
■exogens. 

Seeds. — Make also a special study of nature's 
methods and arrangements for the protection and 
dispersion of seeds. Show in this connection that 
the chief object in the life of a plant is to per- 
petuate its species, and to that end the perfecting 
■of the seed is the principal necessity. Call atten- 
tion to the protection the plant gives to its seed 
and carefully prepare a series of lessons on how 
how plants scatter their seeds, permitting the 
pupils to make their own discoveries as far as 
possible. Encourage pupils to make collections 



36 NATURE-SCIENCE 

and after examination and comparison make lists 
and drawings of winged seeds, as the maple 
feathery or downy seeds, as the thistle, and 
hooked seeds, as the cockle bur, sand bur, etc. 

Show the scattering of seeds, first, as carried 
by the wind. Such seeds, it will be seen, usually 
have thin, downy attachments, or wings which, 
serve as sails to waft them forward. Among the 
former are the familiar dandelion seeds, milk 
weed pods enclosing a silken mass, the thistle, 
the fireweed, the goldenrod, asters, wild lettuce, 
wild clematis, the cat-tail, etc. Among the latter- 
will be found the seeds of the maple, the elm, the 
pine, the ash, etc. 

Second, seeds scattered by water, may be 
discussed in an interesting and instructive way^ 
Seeds of plants growing in the water should be 
examined, if possible ; the seeds of the white and 
the yellow water-lilies, it will be noticed, contain 
air-bubbles which keep them afloat for a consider- 
able length of time. Wild rice floats a long dis- 
tance, but cultivation makes its seeds too large 
and heavy to travel far. Cocoanuts, seeds of the 
mahogany tree, etc., are carried long distances by 
ocean currents. Grass seeds, etc., are familiar 
examples of seeds that are carried in the soil 
washed by rivers and smaller streams. 

Third, there are numerous familiar instances 
of seeds distributed by animals. Birds are among 
the most active agents in seed distribution. Crows, 
magpies, etc., in a seeming spirit of mischief, 
have been known to carry nuts several miles and 
bury them. The seeds of wild grasses cling to 



AND AGRICULTURE. 37 

the feathers of birds and are carried long dis- 
tances, and other birds, especially waders, carry 
lumps of earth containing seeds on their feet or 
legs to be deposited far away. Rye, oats, wheat, 
millet and clover seeds have been carried fre- 
<[uently in the crops of birds. Other seeds, pro- 
tected against digestion, have been swallowed by 
birds for the sweet, fleshy part that surrounds 
them. Among these are the raspberry, cherry, 
blackberry, strawberry, etc. The hooked seeds, 
«uch as burdocks, cockleburs, sand burs and the 
like, fasten themselves upon the coats of sheep, 
'dogs, cows, horses and the clothing of man and 
are so disseminated. An interesting study may 
be made of their adaptation for this means of dis- 
persion from their color, and mode of growth as 
well as from their being prepared with hooks, 
barbs, etc. 

Studies In Physics. — Study the forms of water, 
<;alling attention first to that of water drop. Show 
that a frozen drop of water is a hail stone. The for- 
ces, gravitation, cohesion and adhesion may be illus- 
trated with the drop of water, but the extent to 
which these are developed must depend upon the 
advancement of the class or their ability to un- 
derstand. The shape of the water drop may be 
commented upon and explained according to the 
understanding of the pupils. 

The formation of vapor may be shown by the 
use of the ordinary teakettle. Call attention to 
the similarity of the steam, formed when the vapor 
comes in contact with cold air, to clouds, and ex- 
plain that clouds are formed in a similar way. 



38 NATURE-SCIENCE 

show that heat, as from an alcohol lamp, will 
cause the cloud of steam to disappear. Explain 
that clouds sometimes are dispelled by heat. 

Illustrate evaporation by wetting some object 
as a cloth, piece of paper or a sponge, and place it 
in the sunlight or near the fire. Explain where 
the water has gone and why, and show how it may 
become condensed and visible. The formation of 
water drops on the outside of a vessel of cold water 
will illustrate the formation of dew. 

Call attention to the uses of steam, as in 
heating dwellings, in the cooking, in furnishing 
power engines, etc. Show that frost is only frozen 
dew, that snowflakes are formed by the freezing 
of water vapor before it is under the influence of 
cohesion. Study the varied delicate crystal* 
formed in snowflakes. 

Study and discuss ice, showing the beauty and 
symmetry in crystallization, the uses of ice after it 
has been stored at the time of ice harvest, the 
manner of harvesting and storing, agency of ice 
in erosion, etc. 

Meteorology. — Keep a weather record as sug- 
gested in first paper. Kemember to determine the 
average temperature at the end of each month. 

Geological Studies. — Study gravel beds, their 
origin, etc. Pebbles, their nature, origin, rela- 
tion to life on the earth. Clay beds, and how 
they, are built. 

Clay consists of hydrous silicate or alumini. 
(Aluminium is the metallic base of alumina, a 
white metal with a bluish tinge, and is remark- 
able for its resistance to oxidation, and for ita 



AND AGRICULTURE. 3S> 

lightness.) All clays seem to owe their origin to* 
the decomposition of rarious rocks. While their 
chief constituent is aluminic silicate, they con- 
tain other ingredients varying with the nature of 
the rock to which they owe their origin. Com- 
mon clay is a mixture of kaolin, or China clay, 
and the fine powder of some felapathic mineral 
which is not decomposed. 

The most common varieties of clay are: 
China clay, or kaolin ; pipe clay, containing it 
larger percentage of silica than kaolin ; potter'a 
clay, less pure than pipe clay; sculptor's clay, or 
modeling clay, a fine potter's clay sometimes 
mixed with fine sand; brick clay, a mixture of 
clay and sand with some ferruginous matter ; fire- 
clay, containing little if any lime, alkaline earth 
or iron. Shale is a laminated clay-rock ; clay- 
slate is an indurated cleaved clay-rock. 

The relation of nutrition to the health of 
plants as treated by Albert F. Woods, Pathologist 
and Physiologist, Bureau of Plant Industry, in 
the year book of the Department of Agriculture 
for 1901, is so essential and so clearly in line with* 
what should be taught in this connection that w& 
have taken the liberty to draw freely from thia 
paper on this subject, as embracing the results of 
the most recent investigations. 

Plant Nutrition is one of the most important 
problems in agriculture. The most careful tech- 
nical research is required in its study and every 
truth learned or process explained is of great prac- 
tical value. Only a general outline, as based up- 
on reports from experiment stations and the 



40 NATURE-SCIENCE 

Bureau of Plant Industry, can be attempted in a 
work of this kind. The discussion, however, will 
include the most important problem of nutrition 
and is intended to stimulate thoughtful investiga- 
tion and experiment. 

The simple elements we have named are ob- 
tained and organized into living tissue by the pro- 
cess called nutrition. It will be seen that while 
all plants may be resolved into the same primary 
elements, these elements have various combina- 
tions and relations to each other in the processes 
of organization, making the variety of organic 
materials and tissues. 

We have different species or varieties of 
plants as a result of the fact that each living cell 
has a tendency to organize its simple elements 
after the manner of its own organization, thus 
giving a peculiarity of organization which is ac- 
cepted as a natural course in the reproduction of 
all individuals. 

However, variations in condition of environ- 
ment and food will produce variation in the plant. 
This is evident from the comparison of a plant 
grown on poor soil with one of the same species 
grown on very rich soil. The difference is so 
great that they are scarcely recognized as the 
same. 

The elements necessary to plant life and 
growth must be in combination available to the 
plant. As a whole, plants vary in their ability to 
obtain their food elements from different sub- 
stances, but with the ordinary agricultural plants 
there is not so much difference. All absorb the 



AND AGRIOULTURE. 41 

free oxygen of the air through the roots, stems, 
and leaves, and obtain nitrogen, ammonia, etc., in 
the soils mostly by absorption through the roots, 
but none of the agricultural plants are able to ab- 
sorb nitrogen directly from the air. Though about 
75 per cent of the volume of the air is nitrogen, 
it is available to crops only through the agency of 
micro-organisms, as before stated, which convert 
it into nitrates, etc., and thus furnish it through 
decaying vegetation or from living roots or cells. 

Water and the various salts, of calcium, 
magnesium, potassium, sulphur, phosphorus, etc., 
in solution are absorbed mainly through the roots 
from the soil. From 70 to 90 per cent of the 
weight of living plants is water. 

The analyses of prominent investigators show 
that the quantitative composition of the ash of 
the same kind of plants varies according to the 
soil in which they are grown. Every plant re- 
quires a certain minimum of each mineral 
nutrient. Silicon and sodium are perhaps the 
only exceptions. An excessive amount may be 
fully as injurious, as in alkali soils, etc. 

All practical farmers recognize the effect of 
soil conditions upon plant life and development. 
The greatest per cent of the substance of plants 
comes to them through the soil by way of the 
roots, and the texture and structure of the soil 
has a decided effect upon the availability to the 
plant of the soil foods with the air and water. 

Much study has been devoted to the adapta- 
tion of plants to soils of certain texture, for an 
attempt to grow a crop on a soil not well adapted 



42 NATURE-SCIENCE 

to it, will result at least in partial failure unless 
skill is able to modify the conditions of growth. 

It has been found more difficult to maintain 
available food, not in too strong a solution in the 
soil water with the soil not so wet as to exclude 
the air, in light, sandy soils than in clayey soils. 
Perhaps the most favorable for management is a 
light clay soil with humus and fiber derived from 
decaying roots and plant tissues or manure. Such 
a soil can be most easily adapted, with proper 
drainage, to the absorption of soluble food with- 
out danger to roots or plants. It will not readily 
become too wet or too dry and air is easily admitted 
to the roots. 

Importance of Oxygen. — Poor drainage and 
consequent excess of water and lack of air to 
supply oxygen brings on asphyxiation, weakening, 
and even death to the roots of plants growing in 
soils subject to such unsuitable mechanical con- 
ditions. Frequent illustrations of this are seen in 
crops growing in heavy clay soils, especially where 
there is impervious subsoil or hardpan, where the 
feeding roots are killed by suffocation during ex- 
tended wet periods. Roots forming in a moist or 
dryish soil are often killed in two or three days if 
the soil becomes saturated with water as in the 
time of floods on low flat lands. In addition to 
the weakening of plants by the loss of feeding 
roots, there is development also of injurious pro- 
ducts, as alcohol, etc., in the cells of the roots 
that are not killed. 

If the surface of the soil becomes packed or 
hardened most plants will suffer for want of oxy- 



AND AGRICULTURE. 45 

gen for the roots. This is one reason the farmer 
plows his growing corn or his orchard. The 
stunted condition or the death of shade trees along: 
paved streets is due mostly to the fact that the 
open space left around the trunk of the tree is 
packed as hard as the pavement or that this space 
is entirely too small. 

Chemical Condition of the Soil. — It has already 
been stated that plants will suffer starvation if 
there is not a sufficient quantity of any or all of the 
essential elements. The roots w^ill also be injured if 
the soluble salts are too greatly in excess. The 
iron compounds, for example, cannot be dissolved 
and absorbed by the roots if an excess of lime is 
present. The absorption of iron and other diffi- 
cultly soluble materials is also prevented by a lack 
of oxygen or by the presence of parasites which 
kill the root hairs and feeding roots. The addi- 
tion of iron, sulphate or other soluble iron salt, to- 
the soil, will usually correct the trouble due to the 
lack of iron. 

Recent investigations have shown that magne- 
sium is a poison to many plants if unaccompanied 
by a readily available calcium compound. Too> 
much magnesium and insufficient lime give plants 
a stunted growth. The remedy is to apply lime 
free from magnesium. Soils poor in magnesium, 
however, receive benefit from a magnesium lime 
and injury from a lime free from magnesium. 

It must be remembered that magnesium is- 
necessary to plant growth. It is especially 
important in the formation of seeds, and while a. 
comparatively small amount is generally sufficient 



44 NATURE-SCIENCE 

for plant growth up to the time of flowering or fruit- 
ing, a sufficient amount must be available then or 
the flower buds will not form or will wither before 
maturing. This, and other symptoms caused by 
lack of this important element, may also be pro- 
cured by other causes which must also be taken 
into consideration. 

Magnesium occurs in the soil in a natural 
way from disintregating rocks, chiefly as magne- 
sium carbonate and sulphate. 

If there is not sufficient lime or calcium it is 
first indicated in plant development by stunted 
growth and small, yellowish leaves. Chlorophyll 
or leaf green bodies do not normally develop, and 
the starch they make does not readily change into 
sugar. It is thought that this latter difliculty is 
•due to the failure of the nucleus of the cells to 
manufacture diastase, the ferment necessary for 
transforming starch to sugar in plant nutrition. 

Calcium owes its chief importance to the fact 
that it is a necessary constituent of the compounds 
■entering directly into the composition of the nuc- 
leus and of the chlorophyll bodies, while it serves 
:also the purpose to a large extent of neutralizing 
free acids developing in the nutrition of the cell. 

Calcium is also important in serving to com- 
bine acids produced in the soil in various ways, i. 
•e., by decomposition brought about through the 
action of roots, etc., upon soil particles, and also 
by strictly chemical decompositions. The roots of 
plants would be injured if these free acids were 
not neutralized. The presence of lime also favors 
nitrification in the soils. 



AND AGRICULTURE. 45 

Potassium. — All agricultural plants require 
large quantities of potassium. It is estimated 
that a wheat field requires about thirty pounds per 
acre annually ; clover field, about eighty-three 
pounds; potato field, about one hundred pounds. 

One of the first indications of a lack of potash 
is a cessation in growth without any apparent dis- 
turbance, the plants having their normal green 
color but making very little starch or sugar, and 
little, if any, protein or nitrogenous matter. 

Potash is apparently indispensible in connec- 
tion with protein formation and it is an important 
factor in the formation of starches and sugars. 
Proteins, or the related nitrogenous compounds, 
are the main source of food in the growing cells, 
hence the importance of potassium is easily recog- 
nized. 

One of the most important physical require- 
ments of plant growth is turgescence, or water 
pressure, in the cells. Potassium is necessary to 
this condition, while it also increases the water- 
absorbing power of the plant as a whole and the 
water holding power of the soil. Plants are more 
readily matured and perfected by a ready supply 
of potassium. 

It has been estimated that clay soils, especi- 
ally clay loams, contain from 5 to 8 per cent of 
potash, lighter loams, about 3 per cent and deeper 
sandy soils about 1 per cent. Even this smaller 
amount is equivalent to 3,500 pounds per acre, 
assuming that one acre of land one foot deep 
weighs 3,500,000 pounds. 

Function of Phosphoric Acid. — Phosphorus 



46 NATURE-SOIENOE 

enters largely into the nutrition of the nucleus of 
'Cells. The nucleus is not only the controlling 
•center of every living cell, but its most highly 
specialized portion. It is evident, then, that 
without phosphoric acid the nucleus can neither 
grow nor divide for the production of new cells, 
hence plant growth ceases. Phosphoric acid is 
also an important constituent of chlorophyll and of 
•chlorophyll bodies. Without these, the formation 
of sugar and starch from water and carbon dioxide 
cannot be accomplished. The lack of phosphoric 
acid, as well as of iron, lime or magnesium, is in- 
dicated by a yellowing of the chlorophyll. 

Chemical investigation has shown that as a 
plant nears its flowering or fruiting period, phos- 
phoric acid, magnesium, proteins and carbohy- 
drates pass rapidly into the younger parts of the 
plant, preparatory to being stored in the seeds of 
fruits to meet the requirements of rapid growth 
at these periods. In case of scarcity, these ma- 
terials are even forcibly withdrawn from the lower 
leaves and the roots when the reserves are used 
up. The living substance of the cells in the lower 
leaves is dissolved and absorbed after the carbo- 
hydrates, the fats and other reserve foods are gone. 
The chlorophyll disappears, then the chlorophyll 
bodies (chloroplasts), the nucleus, and the rest of 
the valuable constituents of the cells are absorbed 
by the younger parts. The elements thus obtained 
serve to feed the tuft of young leaves for a con- 
siderable time. 

It is noted that a similar transfer of valuable 
food constituents takes place before the fall of 



AND AGRI CULTURE. 47 

leaves in autumn in practically all deciduous 
trees. 

Nitrogen is necessary to the formation of al- 
bumen and of various constituents of the proto- 
plasm. As has been stated, it is absorbed from 
the soil by the plant largely as nitrates or 
ammonia. 

The lack of nitrogen is usually manifested by 
reduced leaf and stem growth and the tendency 
to the production of flowers and fruit at a very 
early period, though the amount of fruit produced 
is correspondingly small. Again, an excess of 
nitrogen, like an excess of water, stimulates the 
production of a vegetative growth at the expense 
of flowers and fruit. 

Wheat and other cereals have not only soft 
leaves and weak stems under such conditions, but 
the plants are more subject to rust and mildew, 
and other parasitic diseases. This is true, practi- 
cally, of all ordinary plants. Common salt is of 
great value when applied to light soils too rich in 
nitrogen. It reduces the excessive vegatative 
growth, thus permitting the formation of more 
grain in proportion to the straw and preventing 
the lodging due to rank growth. English farmers 
use it on very light lands at the rate of two to 
three hundredweight per acre, applied usually be- 
fore the land is plowed. 

Nitrogen assimilation also appears to be in- 
volved in some obscure diseases, such as the 
mosaic disease of tobacco, winter blight of toma 
toes, peach yellows, etc. 

The dilute solutions of nitrates are absorbed 



48 NATURE-SCIENCE 

by the roots of the plants and pass up through the 
stems to the leaves, where, through the aid of the 
chlorophyll, the nitric acid unites with the sugars 
to form the more highly organized compounds, 
amides and proteids, which serve as food for the, 
growing cells. If anything interferes with the 
process of proteid organization nitrogen starvation 
will result, even in the presence of large quanti- 
ties of nitrates, for the young cells cannot use the 
original soil nitrates. 

Sugars are required for the organization of 
proteids, and sugar cannot be produced unless the 
chloroplasts are in good working order and exposed 
to light and heat of the proper intensity. There 
is no proteid formation in albino leaves or those 
devoid of chlorophyll, neither is there any where 
there is not sufficient light or heat. In such 
cases, therefore, nitrates accumulate in the plant. 
When the activity of the chloroplasts is renewed 
this accumulation of nitrates is gradually worked 
up into proteids, except in albino leaves, where 
the chloroplasts have lost their functional activity. 

Experimental investigation has shown that a 
large excess in nitrates may in themselves cause a 
yellowing in the chloroplasts and so prevent nitrate 
assimilation. At first, plants overfed with nitrate 
of soda or other strong nitrogenous fertilizers, be- 
come brighter green and grow rapidly, but as 
their nitrates accumulate in the cell faster than 
it is used, the leaves begin to turn yellow on the 
edges and along the vascular bundles, and growth 
is checked and the plant dies back. This is 
especially likely to happen in plants that are not 



AND AGRICULTURE. 4^ 

gross feeders. Yellowing and death of the edges 
of the leaves is caused by an over application of 
almost quickly soluble salt (potash, sodium, chlo- 
ride, etc. 

Organic manures are likely to stimulate vege- 
tative growth at the expense of fruit, the fruit 
produced with organic nitrogen being coarser^ 
thicker skinned and of poorer quality than when 
mineral fertilizers are used. Muck acts in this 
respect like organic manures, and it often contains 
iron pyrite, which, when exposed to the air, oxi- 
dizes to iron sulphate or copperas. Free sulphuric 
acid often forms in such cases, especially in the 
presence of decaying organic matters. The inju- 
rious action of muck on plants is often due tO' 
these causes rather than to any peculiarity of their 
nitrogen. Thorough compositing with lime is a 
remedy for these conditions. 

In the use of organic nitrogen, especially fresh 
organic manures, there is a possible danger of the 
production of nitrites during decay and fermenta- 
tion in the absence of a ready supply of oxygen. 
The acid juice of the roots of plants would con- 
vert nitrites into nitrous acids, which would, of 
course, quickly kill the feeding roots. This may 
be one reason why fresh manures often act injuri- 
ously on crops, especially in soils not well aerated. 

If the solid matter in a solution in a soil ex- 
ceed one part to five hundred of water, it is near- 
ing a limit beyond which many plants are likely 
to suffer ; the leaves turn yellow on the edges, be- 
come spotted and drop off, or growth is checked^ 
shortened and compacted ; the leaves often become 



50 NATURE-SCIENCE 

puckered and twisted, owing to the weak devel- 
opment of the vascular tissue ("veins") as com- 
pared with the soft cells of the leaf. The roots 
and root hairs are also shortened, thickened and 
deformed. This refers, of course, to conditions 
to where concentration is not sufficient to kill the 
roots outright. It is understood that the strength 
of solution varies for different species of plants, 
some requiring a weak solution of nutritive mat- 
ter while for others a highly concentrated solution 
is best. As a general rule plants with leathery 
leaves, with hard and narrow leaves, and with 
hard wood, require more dilute solutions than 
those with large, soft and expanded leaves. It is 
well to note that during the period of leaf forma- 
tion plants can do with the greatest amount of 
nutritive matter. 

Water. — An insufficient supply of water causes 
a hard, stunted growth, while an excess of water 
causes a soft, watery growth, subject to the 
attacks of various plant and animal parasites 
and easily injured consequently by drought. 
As has been previously stated, an excess 
of water in the soil excludes the air and 
produces asphyxiation of the roots. Most 
annual plants require the greatest amount of wa- 
ter during the rapid development of new shoots 
and leaves, and again at the period of flowering 
and fruiting. During to dormant or resting period 
which most plants require at some stage of their 
development, very little water is required, as well 
as very little food of any kind. Many evergreen 
plants, if watered during the resting period, drop 



AND AGRICULTURE. 51 

their leaves, after which, if the soil is not brought 
promptly to the proper degree of dryness, the 
feeding roots decay and the plant may die. In 
the case of bulbous and tuberous plants the nat- 
ural ripening and resting periods of the bulbs and 
tubers must be regarded or the bulbs will either 
rot or produce plants of very low vitality. 

Most plants store up their reserve food imme- 
diately following the period of vegetative growth 
and fruit production. In perennials it is stored 
in the roots and stems and in the bulbous and 
tuberous plants in the bulbs and tubers. Here it 
undergoes slow changes, varying for different spe- 
cies, preparatory to a renewed period of growth. 
Many seeds also have to go through a similar rest- 
ing period in which these nutritive materials be- 
come available for further growth. While plants, 
bulbs and seeds may often be forced to grow with- 
out this period of rest, it is evident that the re- 
serve foods may not be in the right form to prop- 
erly nourish the early stages of growth, and a 
weak, diseased plant is the result. No amount of 
nutritive salts or fertilizers applied to the roots of 
such plants can help them out. They will even- 
tually starve to death in the presence of an ex- 
cess of food. The pathological conditions in the 
cells are the same as described under the head of 
nitrogen. 

Carbon forms about one-half (44 to 60 per cent) 
of the dry organic matter of plants. (The same pro- 
portion holds true in animal life.) It has been 
noted that the absorption of carbon dioxid from 
the air is one of the fundamental conditions of 



52 NATURE-SCIENCE 

nutrition. Though the amount in the air is quite^ 
small, viz., only .03 per cent, (or 3 volumes in 
10,000 volumes of the air) the air is the direct 
source of supply. 

The transformation of carbon dioxid into car- 
bohydrates (starch, sugar, etc.) takes place only in 
cells containing chlorophyll, and these are located, 
of course, mainly in the leaves. Hence anything 
which interferes with the normal development of 
the chlorophyll bodies in the leaves or the devel- 
opment of chlorophyll will interfere indirectly 
with carbon assimilation. 

Heat and Light are very important factors,, 
and different species of plants vary in regard to- 
requirements in these respects. Some plants re- 
quire to be shaded. When leaves are even slightly 
withered the stomata, or breathing pores, through 
which the principal interchange of gases (carbon 
dioxide, hydrogen, etc.) between the leaf and the- 
air takes place, close in order to prevent the fur- 
ther loss of water. In this withered condition car- 
bon dioxide enters the leaf with difficulty and the 
sugar production is greatly reduced or altogether 
prevented. 

When leaves are exposed to sunlight, as Prof. 
Wood has determined by experiment, their inter- 
nal temperature becomes several degrees warmer 
than the surrounding air. If the external tem- 
perature is very high, tender leaves may get so hot 
as to be actually scalded. It is observed that 
plants growing in hot deserts and places exposed 
to the sun are, as a rule, covered with a dense 
coating of hair or scales. This prevents the ex- 



AND AGRICULTURE. 53 

■cessive heating of the tissues and consequent ex- 
cessive evaporation. 

Observations of investigators have been con- 
firmed by Prof. Wood to the effect that spraying 
foliage with Bordeaux mixture or lime reduces 
evaporation, since the applications act like a hairy 
or scaly covering. Hence, during hot, dry periods 
spraying, apart from the fungicidal value, has a 
beneficial influence in promoting assimilation by 
preventing excessive absorption of heat and light 
rays by the leaves, and crops so protected might 
be able to withstand a droughty season that would 
otherwise greatly injure them. It also suggests 
the inadvisability of spraying heat-loving plants 
during the cool weather of early spring. 

When plants are exposed to too strong a light 
the fact can usually be determined by the effort 
on the part of the suffering plant to place the sur- 
face of its leaves more or less parallel to the light 
rays, thus reducing absorption. When there is 
too little light the leaves present their upper sur- 
face as nearly as possible at right angles to the 
light rays, thus increasing light absorption. In 
very strong light the chloroplasts move to the side 
walls and turn their edges to the light, and the 
leaves thus have a lighter green color and less 
light and heat are absorbed. When the light is 
weaker the chloroplasts present their largest sur- 
face and the same leaf becomes a darker green 
and more light is absorbed. If the light is too 
weak, however, the plant finally becomes yellow- 
ish and starved. 

Reserved Food of Plants. — A mature seed of 



64 NATURE-SCIENCE 

any plant contains not only the embryo plant, but 
more, less reserve food — starch, sugar, oils and 
protein materials. In some cases these materials 
are directly available to the germinating seedling, 
even before the complete maturity of the seed. 
In other cases, after the seed is mature it has to 
go through a "resting" period, in which internal 
changes take place preparatory to germination. 
Ferments are formed ready to cause the solution 
of the reserve food during the process of germina- 
tion. If germination is forced before these 
changes are complete a weak and poorly nourished 
growth is the result. Often these preparatory 
resting period changes take place only when the 
seeds are exposed to certain natural conditions of 
environment, such as heat or cold, moisture or 
dryness, etc. 

During the early stages of growth of herba- 
ceous plants, after the reserve food in seeds or 
tubers has been used up, the young plant must 
manufacture its own supply. For this reason the 
first leaves must begin work early in cases where 
the reserve food in the cotyledons or other storage 
tissues is small, and they should therefore be 
carefully protected against injury. 

In most plants we have first a root develop- 
ment, requiring a warm, moist soil and cool air^ 
then a development of the stem and leaves. If 
during the first stage of development conditions 
favor leaf instead of root growth, the young plants 
soon suffer for water and soil food, and even if not 
killed may never fully recover and produce a nor- 
mal growth. The amount and nature of reserve 



AND AGRICULTURE. 55 



food should always be considered in the various 
operations of propagating and pruning, if the 
health, vigor and productiveness of the plants op- 
erated on are to be kept up to a high standard. 

Nalurx^-^rtenr? mh Agrtrultur?. 

OUTLINE QUIZZES. 
(second paper.) 

1. How is the cause of migration of birds ex- 
plained ? 

2. Which explanation do you think most 

plausible? Why? 

3. What have you learned of the food of the 
grasshopper? Of his means of protection? 

4. How or in what are the grasshopper and 
the katydid alike? How are they unlike? 

5. What are the functions of plant stems? 

6. How would you teach these functions to a 
class of children considering them for the first 

time? 

7. How does a corn stalk differ from a maple 
in its manner of growth? In venation? 

8. What is the function of bark on stems? 

9. What is the chief object in the life of a 

plant? 

10. What animals are the most active agents 
in seed distribution? 

11. Of what does clay consist? Name com- 
mon varieties? 

12. What is meant by plant nutrition? 

13. What causes different species or varieties? 



m NATURE-SCIENCE 

14. Discuss the importance of oxygen to plant 
life? 

15. Why does packing of the soil about roots 
of plants cause the plants to suffer? 

16. "What chemical conditions injure growing 
plants? 

17. Of what importance is magnesium to plant 
life? 

18. In what particular is calcium important? 

19. "Which elements are the source of food in 
growing cells? 

20. How is lack of nitrogen usually manifested 
in plants ? 



AND AGRICULTURE. 57 

[ THIRD PAPER.] 

**I pity the man who can travel from Dan to Beersheba and say 
* 'Tis ail barren*? and so it is; and so is all the world to him w^ho 
will not coltivatc the fruit it offers." — Sterne. 

THIRD LESSON. 
Plant Study. 

It will be well to begin this study with a kind 
of anatomical study of familiar plants as types of 
plant life. Note first the variety in form and size 
and make distinctions, as, trees, shrubs and herbs. 
Call attention to the almost universal green color- 
ing and explain the importance of this color. As 
examples of plants which are not so colored, refer 
to mushrooms and lichens. The latter may be 
found in abundance on the trunks of trees, or on 
walls, etc. Interest may be varied and intensified 
by exhibiting also a few microscopical specimens 
of plants. Taking any familiar tree, studying its 
parts, as roots, stem (trunk), branches and leaves. 
The principal study of the roots at this time should 
be a comparison with the stem, showing their 
similarity — sometimes, notably, in the case of the 
chestnut tree, etc., when a portion of the root is 
uncovered for a considerable time, it appears very 
much like the stem, and even sends shoots or 
branches bearing buds, into the air. Consider 
types of roots, as soil, water, air, clinging and 
prop roots. Call attention, also, to different kinds 
of stems, as subterranean, procumbent, floating, 
climbing, erect, etc. Study the three distinct 



58 NATURE-SCIENCE 

parts, pith, wood and bark, in a cross section of 
the trunk. Notice that the pith does not increase 
in area of cross section as the tree grows older. 
Notice, too, the difference in color, smoothness 
and thickness of the bark, by comparing a young 
tree with an old one, and observe that the growth 
of new wood is between the old wood and the 
bark. Thus it can be seen that the growth is 
from the outside. The older wood is the "heart 
wood," the newer growth the '*sap wood." 

Compare the relations of the branches to the 
trunk, in the pine, fir, etc., and apply the terms, 
excurrent and deliquescent. 

Consider next the leaves in their relation to 
the branch, as to whether they are petiolate (hav- 
ing a stem) or sessile (without a stem). 

Call attention to the importance of the blade 
of the leaf and notice the arrangement of the 
leaves on the stem, as opposite, alternate, etc. 
Other interesting studies will be in comparing 
leaves as to their venation, their surfaces, their 
classification into simple, compound, etc., their 
margins, their outlines, bases, apexes, etc. 

Observe that new branches are formed always 
in the angle between the leaf and the branch or 
stem on which it grows. Some of these branches, 
usually shorter than others, end in a flower bud. 

Study the parts of a flower; the calyx, with 
its separate leaves called sepals, thecorolia, whose 
leaves are called petals; the stamens, composed 
each of a filament and an anther (the latter pro- 
ducing the pollen, or flower dust, whose use should 
be explained) ; the pistils, whose stalks are called 



AND AGRICULTURE. 59 

styles and the ball at the base an ovary which 
will grow or develop and form the fruit when the 
other parts of the flower have fallen away or have 
disappeared. From a variety of specimens it> 
should be shown that some are incomplete, that is, 
they have not all the parts just named, and that 
those are perfect flowers, so far as fructification is 
concerned, which have both stamens and pistils. 
It should be explained, or discovered, that some 
flowering plants do not produce fruit because they 
do not bear both these essential organs. Willows, 
hemp, chestnuts, hops, etc., may be studied as 
examples of this class, and the discovery made 
that plants bearing these organs, each on a differ- 
ent plant, must grow near each other in order 
that there may be fruit. Sometimes, as in the 
case of a certain weeping v/illow, new plants must 
be produced from slips or cuttings, since only one 
kind, that bearing pistils, has been imported to 
this country. Distinctions should be made also as 
to the length of life of different plants ; as, an- 
nuals, biennials and perennials and the pupils 
should be led to name examples of each. Note 
that some plants are perennial, as to the root, but 
annual as to the stem. 

Do not clooo this study until there is a clear 
idea of the parts of a plant and their functions as 
well as ability to give a good defir.itio i of all the 
parts and terms discussed. The relation that 
flower, fruit, s^ed, root, stem, leaf and bud bear 
to each other should be shown, as adapted to the 
ability of the learner. Also the different organs 
in which plant fcod may be stored should be dis- 



60 NATURE-SCIENOE 

cussed, together witli the sources of plant food. 
There is an abundant opportunity, too, to dis- 
tinguish the organic and the inorganic in these 
studies and researchep, and the relations of the 
•diiferent groups of natural objects to one another 
may be discussed. Sketching or drawing should 
not be omitted as it serves an important purpose 
in bringing out the charact ristic features, as the 
pupil sees them, of organs, structure, etc., under 
investigation ; but avoid going too much into de- 
tail and make no attempt to be "artistic" in this 
respect. 

ANIMALS. 

Frogs, Toads and Salamanders. — Examples of 
as many kinds of frogs and toads as possible should 
be compared as to size, color and markings, 
habits, etc. Their notes, manner of feeding, sea- 
son of spawning, etc., should be obs3rved. Ob- 
:serve also their eggs and compare them. Note 
that frogs have teeth in the lower jaw, while 
toads have none. It may also be learned that 
none of them are veno.jous aid that nearly all 
are valuable insect dastroyers and for that reason 
they should be protected, not abused and de- 
spised. Distinction should also be made between 
salamanders and lizards. The former have a 
smooth skin while the latter are always covered 
with horny scales. There are no common lizards 
in the northern portion of the United States. Ex- 
amples of these, as the "horned toad" and the 
chameleon are frequently brought from Texas 
and other southern states as curiosities. Sala- 



AND AGKIOULTURE. 61 

manders belong with frogs and toads in the class 
known as Batrachia. Mud puppies resemble 
salamanders in shape. They live altogether in 
water and have external gills. Salamanders have 
no external gills when full grown. 

Turtles also afford interesting study as to 
habits of feeding, etc. Their nests, containing 
eggs often in great numbers, may be found hidden 
in the sand in the banks of streams or ponds. The 
actions of the newly hatched young will be ob- 
served also with great interest. It will be ob- 
served that most turtles are aquatic or semi- 
aquatic. 

Studies in Physics. — Compare natural objects 
as to their common properties, as, impenetrability, 
dvisibility, compressibility and expansibility, 
etc. Experiments may be made showing that the 
several objects compared possess these properties 
although in different degrees. 

The Three States of Matter: — Solid, liquid and 
gaseous, may be represented easily and definite 
ideas concerning them may be shown. 

Experiment. — Plunge an inverted tumbler in- 
to a vessel of water and note that the surface of 
the water in the tumbler is lower than that of the 
water in the larger vessel. Burn a small piece of 
paper in the tumbler and while it is warm invert 
and plunge it quickly again partially into the 
vessel. Notice that the surface of the water in 
the tumbler is now higher than that in the larger 
vessel. What does this prove about the air? 
Show the change of a liquid into gaseous form by 
the two processess, ebullition (boiling), and by 



62 NATURE-SCIENCE 

evaporation. The experiments may be carried 
further and the process of distillation shown by 
simple means. 

The expansion and compression of liquids and 
solids by the application of heat or cold, or by the 
observation of natural phenomena, etc. It may 
be shown that solids increase in volume by being 
reduced to the liquid form, and that a still greater 
increase in volume results from sufficient addi- 
tion of heat or reduction of pressure to bring it to 
a gaseous condilion. The notable exception to 
this general rule should be shown in the case of 
freezing water or melting ice. Illustrations or 
observations showing the importance, and the 
utility of the great force developed in this way 
should be insisted upon. The principle of the ex- 
pansion of the solids by heat and their contraction 
by cold can be understood readily by the ob- 
servant minds and its importance, in the utility 
of nature and in the mechanical world should be 
suggested by proper means ; as, in the bursting of 
vessels when water is frozen in them, or the 
breaking or splitting of rocks by the same process, 
(proving the exception spoken of above) ; in the 
space left between the ends of the rails in con- 
structing railway tracks ; in the illustration of the 
principle in ''setting" wagon tires, etc. 

A portion of this study may be spent in dis- 
cussing Temperature, what it is ; in learning that 
heat and cold are relative terms ; that cooling an 
object consists not in adding cold, but in taking 
away heat; that we speak of an object as being 
very warm when its temperature is higher than 



AND AGRICULTURE. 63 

that of our body, and cold when its temperature is 
lower; but in either case we cannot accurately de- 
termine the degree, hence, the body, or rather the 
sense of "■ feeling " or touch is not always a relia- 
ble guide in determining temperatures of objects 
and for this reason instruments called thermome- 
ters (from the two Greek words, thermos, heat, 
and metron, measure), are used; these instru- 
ments should be studied and the fact determined 
that they are constructed upon the principle of ex- 
pansion and contraction ; discover why liquids are 
used for this purpose generally instead of solids. 
The graduation of the thermometer will also make 
an interesting study if desired at this time. 

Studies in Chemistry. — The first effort in this 
study should be directed toward an understanding 
of the difference between physical and chemical 
phenomena. It should be clearly shown and un- 
derstood that in any chemical change a complete 
change in the nature of the body is made, i. e., 
the object loses itself in giving rise to other 
bodies; in a physical change the body does not 
lose its nature, although it may appear in another 
form, as changed from solid to liquid, or from 
liquid to gaseous, or it may be mixed with other 
substances. 

Simple bodies, or elements, that is, bodies that 
cannot be decomposed, of which there are about 
seventy, including the metals, should be dis- 
tinguished from compound bodies, or those com- 
posed of two or more simple bodies. The different 
kinds of matter of which a substance is made are 
called its constituents. All the natural compounds 



64 NATURE-SCIENCE 

are made out of the seventy elements or simple 
bodies. These rarely occur as pure compounds, 
for two or more substances are mingled so com- 
pletely that they seem to be but one, although 
each posesses all its properties unchanged. For 
example, in syrup of sugar the water and sugar 
are mixed without change of properties. It is the 
same with water and salt as in brine. Such are 
called mixtures, purely physical phenomena. Use 
other illustrations. All substances are either 
simple compounds or mixtures. 

The work of chemistry is to decompose com- 
pound bodies, called analysis, or to combine sim- 
ple elements and thus form compound bodies, 
which process is called synthesis. 

It will be observed by every chemical action 
it is a source of heat or cold ; a change in tempera- 
ture accompanies every change in the nature of a 
substance. 

Experiments. — 1. Place a piece of chalk in a 
glass of strong vinegar, or, better in dilute sul- 
phuric acid. Note that a quantity of gas will 
escape from the chalk and rise to the surface. 
Does it not show that the gas was combined with 
something else in the chalk? 

2. Mix some powdered sulphur, "flowers of 
sulphur", with some very fine iron filings. The 
mixture can be easily separated, the sulphur from 
the filings, since it is lighter, and there is no 
combination of the two substances. Now mix 
with warm water and soon the mass will grow 
larger and hotter and become somewhat blackish 
in color. The two substances are now combiiied 



AND AGRIC ULTURE . 65 

and have formed a new substance called sulphide 
of iron. This is a good opportunity to call atten- 
tion to the fact that in its native state sulphur is 
found mixed with earthy impurities from which 
it must be separated. This is affected by evapor- 
ization, as sulpliur vaporizes more readily than 
the substances with which it is mixed, and the 
vapor on being cooled in sulphur and is practically 
pure. 

Sulphur is also found combined with metals 
in the rocks and soils. These compounds are 
called sulphides. Example, sulphide of iron, or 
iron pyrites, known also as "fool's gold." 

Many experiments could be suggested illus- 
trative of mixtures and of combinations to stimu- 
late the powers of observation. It should be kept 
in mind that love of observation should lead to 
that which is of more importance, love of explana- 
tion. Enough has been said to suggest that 
experiment is the key to a real knowledge of 
nature. 

Studies in Geology. — Distinguish between Cal- 
careous and Silicious rocks. Calcareous is from the 
Latin Calx. Lime, chalk, limestone and marble are 
examples of calcareous rocks, since by the action 
of heat they become lime ; they are also affected 
by acids, dissolving and giving off gas by their 
action. 

Silicious rocks are such as are not affected by 
acids, as clay, flint, slate, etc. These resist the 
action of heat. 

Minerals are frequently seen in crystalline 
form. These crystals are either calcareous or sili- 



66 NATURE-SCIENCE 

cious. The former are comparatively soft and 
are of little value. Quartz and precious stones, 
such as rubies, sapphires, etc., are much more val- 
uable. Diamonds are crystallized carbon, not 
stones. Granite is composed of three different 
minerals — quartz, mica and feldspar. 

Quartz is the mineral composing flint rock, 
and is the hardest of all the common minerals. 
A bowlder composed entirely of quartz is called a 
quartzite. There are many quartzites. One com- 
posed of distinct grains, as white and gray, is 
called a granular quartzite. One having the grains 
almost completely melted together is a vitreous 
quartzite. One containing pebbles is a conglom- 
erate. One having some of its pebbles red is a 
jaspery conglomerate. Quartzites are exceedingly 
abundant and grains of quartz are found in many 
other rocks than quartzites. In fact, quartz is the 
most abundant of all minerals. 

Mica is a rock with shining scale-like mineral 
fragments. It splits into leaves of indefinite 
thinness. The leaves of one species are transpar- 
ent; of another black; another varies from dark 
brown or smoky to transparent. 

Fe'idspar is a mineral not so hard as quartz; 
and, also, when compared with quartz, it presents 
a more regular surface, which casts a compara- 
tively unbroken reflection, and in other ways, by 
study and comparison they may be distinguished. 
Feldspar is not always white or cream-colored ; 
very frequently it is pink-tinted; often almost 
red. All these three different minerals are found 
in the granite l)owlder. There are several varie- 



AND AGRICULTURE. 6T 



ties of granite, according to the species of mica ; 
according to the colors of the quartz and feldspar ; 
according to coarseness of the constituents; ac- 
cording to the relative portions of the three in- 
gredients. If, however, the minerals are not uni- 
formly mixed ; if they are ranged in courses, the 
rock is stratified, and it is not a proper granite, 
though often called granite. Properly it is a 
Sfneiss (nice). If the mica is almost or completely 
wanting in a granite-like rock, it is granulite. 
When a gneiss-like rock contains very little feld- 
spar, it is called Mica schist (shist). 

If a bowlder contains quartz and feldspar with 
horneblende (a dark mineral, nearly black, or 
greenish black, or dark green, not scaly) instead 
of mica, it is not granite but Syenite. The 
"Quincy granite," near Boston, is a syenite. 

Studies in Astronomy. — The following topics 
are presented : 

1. The Horizon, (a) The visible or sensible 
horizon; (b) The real horizon. Show that each 
observer has his own horizon, but that the real 
horizon is the line in which the plane passing 
through the center of the earth parallel with its 
visible horizon meets the sky. The distance be- 
tween the visible and the real or astronomical hor- 
izon is too small to be perceived on a surface so 
far away as the apparent surface of the sky. 

2. The Sl<:y. — Note that the observer is always 
at the center of that which is called the sky. 
What does the sky seem to be? What bodies 
seem to move on its surface? 

3. Learn concretely the meaning of sphere, 



68 NAT URE-SCIENCE 

circle, axis, point. Then try to conceive these in 
the abstract. 

4. Deduce several facts proving that the 
earth is spherical in form. 

5. Size and motions of the earth. 

Agriculture. 

[third paper.] 
WHEAT. 

The early home of the wheat was in Central 
Asia and by the Mediterranean Sea. It has been 
claimed that the Chinese cultivated wheat 2700' 
B. C. The Egyptians attributed its origin to Isis; 
the Greeks to Ceres. The early lake dweller* 
cultivated it in Switzerland, the people of Hun- 
gary used it in the Stone Age, and a grain of 
wheat has been found in an Egyptian pyramid 
which dated 3359 B. C. 

Wheat belongs to the family of grasses. It is 
an annual plant, with hollow, erect, knotted stems, 
and produces, in addition to the development 
from the seeding plant, secondary roots and sec- 
ondary shoots (tillers) from the base. 

Varieties of Wheat. 

The classification usually adopted is based, in- 
the first instance, on the nature of the ear ; wh«a 
mature its axis or stem remains unbroken, as in 
the true wheats, or it breaks into a number of 
joints as in the spelt wheats. 

1. True wheats. 
1. Soft wheats. 



AND AGRICULTURE. 69 

The chaff scales are boat-shaped, ovoid, and 
more or less of the consistence of parchment. 
The seed is opaque, white and easily broken. 

2. Turgid wheats. 

The glumes have long aures ; the seed is turgid 
and floury. 

3. Hard wheats. 

The outer glumes are keeled, sharply pointed ; 
the seed is elongated and of a hard, glassy texture 
and difiicult to break, owing to its toughness. 
The seeds are richer in nitrogen than those of the 
soft wheats. 

4. Polish wheats. 

Rarely, if ever, cultivated in this country. 
Large, lanceolate glumes and elongated glassy 
seeds. 

Further subdivisions are also made depending 
upon the presence or absence of aures, bearded 
or beardless wheat, — the color and texture of 
the ears, etc. 

2. Spelt wheats. 

The distinctions of this variety lie in : 

1. The presence of aures. 

2. The direction of the joints of the glumes. 

1. Straight. 

2. Bent outwards. 

3. Turned inwards. 

3. The form of the ear as shown on cross 
section. 

4. The axis or stem breaks into a number of 
joints. 

The division into a spring and winter wheat 
is an agricultured one solely. Any variety may 



70 NATURE-SCIENCE 

be a spring or a winter wheat depending on the 
time at which it is sown. 

GENERAL STRUCTURE OF THE WHEAT PLANT. 

1. Stalk. 

1. Grows to a height of from three to 
four feet. 

2. It contains much woody fibre, being, 
largely composed of silex, a hard 
flint like material. 

2. Leaves. 

Each have a long sheath encircling 
the stem, and at the junction of the 
blade or "flag" with the sheath a small 
whitish outgrowth of "ligula." 

3. The ear. 

Sometimes called the inflorescence 
consists of a central stalk or zigzag 
forming a series of notches, and bearing 
a number of flattened spikelets, one of 
which grows out of each notch and has 
its inner or upper face pressed up 
against it. 

At the base of each spikelet are two 
empty boat shaped glumes or "chaff 
scales," and then a series of flowers, two 
to eight in number. Each flower consists 
of an outer or lower glume, called the 
flowering glume, which terminates in a 
long or short awn or "beard." 

4. The seed. 

1. Oblong or ovoid in shape, with a 
longitudinal furrow on one side. 



AND AGRICULTURE. 71 

2. Closely surrounded by chaff or scales, 

3. Microscopical examination of a longi- 
tudinal section. 

1. The outer layer consists of epidermal 
cells, of which the uppermost are 
prolonged into short hairs to cover 
the apex of the grain. 

2. Two or three layers of cells inside the 
epidermis constitute the tissue of the 
ovary, and overlie somewhat similar 
layers which form the coats of the 
seed. 

3. "Within these cells is a layer of square 
cells which contain the gluten or 

nitrogenous matter upon which the 
nutritive value of the seed depends. This 
thin layer of gluten cells contain the 
albumen or perisperm, composed of 
numerous cells containing starch granules. 
The season for wheat sowing depends upon 
conditions in different parts of the country, and 
somewhat upon the kind or variety to be propa- 
gated. Varieties of winter wheat are sov/n in the 
fall, usually the latterpartof September or during 
the month of October, as they require a sufficient 
time to become firmly rooted before the soil is. 
frozen. 

Spring wheat is sown as early as possible after 
the frost is out of the ground in the springtime. 
For this reason the ground is plowed in the fall, 
usually, and then made fine and loose by means 
of discs or harrows. 

The harvest time for wheat varies from May, 



72 NATURE-SCIENCE 

in Texas to August in Manitoba andQuebec, Canada. 
That of California, Oregon, Alabama, Kansas, and 
most other states, is June; of Minnesota and 
Nebraska, July : Sweden, Norway and Holland 
liarvest their crops in September ; Northern Rus- 
sia and Siberia, in October; Peru and Southern 
Africa, in November; New Zealand and Chile, in 
December ; Australia and Argentine, in January ; 
India, in February; Upper Egypt, in March; 
Lower Egypt, Mexico, Turkey, Persia and Asia 
Minor, in April. 

It is generally conceded that the value of 
wheat for milling and bread-making purposes, 
depends more largely upon its nitrogen contents 
than upon any other. While starch is the most 
abundant constituent of wheat and offers the 
largest amount of nutritive food, the protein, 
representing the principal part of the nitrogenous 
bodies, is the substance which gives the wheat its 
characteristic properties for bread-making, for in 
it are found those constituents, together known 
as gluten, which give wheat flour its superiority 
for bread-making purposes. 

The length of the period of growth is one of 
the principal influences afi'ecting the composition 
of the wheat grain. There seems to be a marked 
relation between the content of protein matter 
and starch and the length of the growing season. 
The shorter the period of the growth and the 
cooler the climate the larger the content of protein 
and the smaller the content of starch, and vice 
versa. For this reason, the spring wheat should 
be cultivated in regions where it is possible. 



AJSID AGRICULTURE. 73 

In southern countries the intense heat, also, 
affects the composition of the grain when it oc- 
curs, as it is apt to do, about the time of ripening, 
and so hastening the ripening process. The result 
is a lowering in the production of starch. 

The amount of seed wheat that should be 
used per acre depends somewhat upon the manner 
of sowing as well as the time. This amount is 
usually about two bushels per acre for the sowing 
made late in September or early in October and 
by increasing this quantity at the rate of half a 
peck per week until three bushels are reached, 
which may be held as the maximum. These are 
the quantities to be used in broad-cast sowing; 
when drilling is resorted to, two-fifths less seed 
will suffice. 
Soil Requirements. 

In order to yield a crop of thirty bushels of 
wheat to the acre, the amount of the demands 
made upon the soil may be approximately ex- 
pressed as follows : 

Nitrogen 134 lbs. 

Phosphoric acid 54 lbs. 

Lime 36 lbs . 

Magnesia 17 lbs. 

Potash 170 lbs. 

Use of Wheat. 

1. Flour. 

2. Straw plaiting and braiding — hats, mats 
and baskets. 

3. Manufacture of paper. 

4. Macaroni. 

A preparation of wheat, originally peculiar to 



74 NATURE-SCIENCE 

Italy, in which country it is an article of food of 
national importance. The same substance in 
different forms known as vermicelli, paste, etc. 
These substances are prepared from the hard, 
semi-translucent varieties, these wheats being not 
only much richer in gluten and other nitrogenous 
compounds, but their preparations are more easily 
preserved, to which conditions their suitability 
for the manufacture of these preparations is due. 
Macaroni and other forms are prepared in a uni- 
form manner from a granular meal or hard wheat,, 
which is thoroughly mixed and made into a stiff 
dough with boiling water. While in the hot con- 
dition it is placed in a strong metallic cylinder, 
the end of which is closed with a thick disk, 
pierced with openings which correspond with the 
diameter of the article to be made. By means of 
an accurately fitting plunger which is introduced 
into this cylinder powerful pressure causes the 
stiff dough to squeeze out through the openings in 
the disk in continuous threads or sticks as required. 
Macaroni is dried rapidly by hanging it in 
long sticks or tubes over wooden rods in stoves 
or lieated apartments through which currents of 
air are driven. True macaroni has a soft yellowish 
color, is rough in texture, hard and breaks with a 
smooth glassy fracture. On boiling it swells up to 
double its original size, without becoming pasty 
or adhesive, always maintaining its original 
tubular form. 

Experiments with macaroni wheats in thi& 
country have been made recentlj'" by the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture and it has been found that 



AND AGRIC ULTURE. 75 

they are well adapted to a wide extent of territory 
in the West and Northwest. In some instances 
they have yielded from one-third to one-half more 
per acre than any other wheats grown side by side 
with them, and a good yield with grain of excellent 
quality, has been produced when other varieties 
have failed. They have also been successfully 
grown in Kansas and Nebraska. 

The demand for carload lots of macaroni 
wheat for seed, as well as for milling, is on the 
increase, and the factories in this country are 
awakening to the importance of their use instead 
of the ordinary bread wheats. 

The seed-bed for wheat is best when one or 
two inches of the surface soil is fine and loose with 
the soil immediately below it fine and compact. 
This condition is secured by plowing some time 
before seeding. Following with the harrows, then 
with the roller. After a week or two the soil 
should be surface-tilled v/ ith disc or heavy, sharp- 
toothed harrow. In this way, the manure, which 
should have been spread upon the freshly plowed 
soil, will be divided and covered, the soil will be 
compacted, and the last cultivation will pulverize 
and loosen the surface. This preparation causes 
the roots of the young plant to spread horizontally 
near the surface so that they may adapt them- 
selves to the alternate rising and falling of the soil 
as it freezes and thaws so that they are not seri- 
ously injured. As the roots grow during the 
warm summer months they naturally penetrate to 
the firmer, more compact soil for the moisture 
they cannot obtain nearer the surface. 



76 NATURE-SCIENCE 

RYE. 

It is claimed that rye is a native of the Island 
of Crete in the Mediterranean Sea. It is also said 
to be growing wild in the regions near the Caspian 
Sea and in certain regions of Crimea. 

1. Stem. Tall, slender, smooth and some- 
what branched at the bottom. When fully 
matured the stem is very rich in silica. 

2. Leaves. Narrow, ribbon-like and bluish 
green in color. 

3. Spikes. Erect, terminal and solitary, 
three to four inches in length. 

4. Kernel. When ripe the grain is of an 
elongated oval form, with a few hairs at the sum- 
mit. It is smaller and less nutritious than that 
•of wheat. 

BARLEY. 

The early home of barley was in Western 
Asia. It was cultivated in Syria over three 
thousand years ago. 

1. The Stalk. Varies in length in different 
localities. When fully matured the stem becomes 
yellow in color and the head droops. 

2. Seed. Is not quite as large as that of 
wheat. Has a fine brush which is rough. The 
aures are long. 

Barley is the most hardy of all cereal grains, 
its limits of cultivation extending further north 
than any other; at the same time it can be culti- 
vated in subtropical countries. 

The following is the composition of barley 
meal : 



AND AGRICULTURE. 7T 



Water 15 per cent 

Nitrogenous compounds 12.98 per cent 

Quia 6.74 per cent 

Sugar 3.2 per cent 

Starch 59.95 per cent 

Fat -■ 2.17 per cent 

OATS. 

1. Stem. From two to three feet in height. 
It turns yellow when the seed is ripe. 

2. Flowers. Are arranged in loose panicles, 
and are thus unlike the spikes of barley, wheat 
and rye. 

3. Seeds. Smooth, with single bent aures. 
The calyx is two-seeded. The branches of the 
panicle are erect when green, but droop when the 
seeds ripen. 

Smut in Oats. — The presence of smut in the 
oat crop can easily be detected by observing the 
blackened, imperfect heads where perfect heads 
of oats should be found. Two distinct smuts have 
been described : 

1. Loose smut. 

2. Closed or covered smut. 

In the loose variety the smutted head is of a 
dusky olive brown color and is easily blown off 
the stalk by the wind, leaving the stalk bare. 
The closed variety is of a blackish brown color, is- 
covered by the hull of the original oat kernel, and 
consequently in many cases the heads of smut are 
not noticed. 

These two varieties of smutted heads are made 
up of spores or seeds of a fungus plant which grow 



78 NATURE-SCIENCE 

inside the oat plant. The growth of this fungous 
plant, which consists of a colorless thread-like 
structure, is as rapid as the growth of the oat 
plant. As the oat plant develops and heads out, 
branches of this invisible smut are sent out into 
the kernels of oats. Tliese branches develop 
seeds of the smut plant where the kernels of the 
oats should be produced. 

This fungous disease may be transmitted from 
crop to crop through the seed oats, but it has been 
found by experiment that heating the seed oats 
to about 140 degrees F. the life of the smut seed 
in the oat kernel will be destroyed while the vital- 
ity of the oat kernel will not be affected. This 
heating and the consequent destruction of the 
smut seed is done practically by dipping the seed 
oats in hot water just before sowing. 

LEQUniNOUS FORAGE PLANTS. 

1. Cow Pea. — The cow pea is a plant of warm 
weather and long season, so that with some excep- 
tions the varieties do not produce seed, or at least 
cannot be depended upon to produce seed north of 
the Ohio river. The crop is grown and seed pro- 
duced in almost every Southern state and upon 
most every farm. 

Cowpeas are allowed to become well ripened 
before harvesting, which is usually done with a 
mower. The vines are piled in small piles and 
frequently turned until dry. Thrashing is best 
done with a bean thrasher, though in some places 
the flail is resorted to or the peas are tramped out 
by horses on the barn floor. 



AND AGRICULTURE. 79 

2. Soy Bean. — The soy bean has a more north- 
ern and western range than the cow pea. The 
pods grow close to the ground and the ordinary 
harvesting machine cannot be successfully used. 
For small areas a "knife cutter" is used ; for large 
areas special harvesting machines are recommend- 
ed. Care is needed in keeping the seed ; it should 
be stored in loose woven bags, which are only par- 
tially filled and kept dry. If put in close bags or 
in deep bins in large quantities the seed may heat 
enough to injure its vitality. 

Canada Field Pea. — The Canada field pea is 
grown in the Northern states and in Canada. This 
is a genuine pea, while the cow pea is not. 

There are many varieties of beans and peas, 
and notwithstanding the fact that they differ to 
some extent, yet they are very similar in their 
nature and growth. The most prominent charac- 
teristic of the order to which the pea and bean 
belong is the seed pod. In reality the iDod is a 
transformed leaf; in other words, when a pod is 
broken open, laid out flat, and the seeds removed, 
its resemblance to a leaf is especially noticeable. 
The long, tough liber situated along the back of 
the pod corresponds to the central vein of a leaf ; 
the line along the front of a pod is the union of 
the two edges. The fibers of the pod are called 
"strings." 

Beans and peas may be considered good ex- 
amples of the two cotyledonous plants, i. e., the 
seeds are in two parts, and in the process of germ- 
ination these tvv'o halves rise above the ground to 
aid in the capacity of both leaf and store house of 



80 NATURE-SCIENCE 

supply, till the plants have enough roots and 
leaves to make a living for themselves. Observa- 
tion will show that as soon as the two halves of 
the seed reach the light and air they turn green, 
which means that they are endowed with chloro- 
phyll and can manufacture protoplasm as well as 
supply it ready-made. As soon as the true leaves 
are developed the cotyledons are absolved. 

Beans and peas require but from six to ten 
weeks for growth and maturity, consequently they 
are planted from early spring till the middle of 
summer. Root and stalks die as soon as the seeds 
are developed. 

The seeds of both peas and beans need but a 
thin covering of soil for germination, springing up* 
in a day or two when planted in moist, warm soil. 
Decay results when covered too deeply. 

Clover, cow peas, soy beans, etc., are grown, 
not only for forage, but principally as leguminous, 
crops to restore nitrogen to the soil. 

HEMP. 

The original home of the hemp plant was 
doubtless in some part of Asia. The hemp plant 
is dioecious, that is the male and female, flowers 
are borne on separate plants. The male plant is 
smaller than the female, and ripens and dies 
earlier in the summer. In addition to these dis- 
tinguishing features the foliage of the female 
plant is darker and more luxuriant than that of 
the male. 

The leaves of the hemp plant consist of from, 
five to seven leaflets, the form of which is lanceo- 



AND AGRICULTURE. 8B 



late-acuminate. The margins are sharply serrated. 
The height of the plant varies according to the 
season, soil, etc., the average being from eight ta 
ten feet. 

Hemp is grown for three products. 

1. The fiber of its stem. 

2. The resinous secretion developed upon it» 
leaves and flowering heads, especially in hot 
countries. 

3. Its oily seeds. 

Hemp fiber is long, soft and very strong, being 
especially adapted for use where strength is re- 
quired. It is used in the manufacture of fine 
twines, carpet thread, sail cloth and different 
grades of woolen goods. The tow is used for 
thread and for yarns to be woven into carpets, 
linen goods, etc., and the refuse fiber combined 
from the two is used as oakum for calking ships. 

The ripe seeds contain about 34 per cent of 
oil and 16 per cent of albuminoids. The seeds are 
about one-eighth of an inch in length and of a 
dark gray color. 

They are much used as a food for singing 

birds. 

Hemp as a drug or intoxicant for smoking and 
chewing occurs in the forms of bhang, ganjah and 

charas. 

An ideal hemp soil must be rich in fertilizing 
elements, especially nitrogen and potassium; it 
must be deep and sufficiently loose in texture to 
permit the development of the root system and 
also to allow good drainage. But few farm crops 
require so much water about its roots. The time 



82 NATURE-SCIENCE 

of harvesting varies from eighty to one hundred 
and forty days from the date of seeding, the rate 
of growth depending upon the variety, moisture, 
condition of the soil and temperature. If cut too 
early the fiber will be fine, but lacking in strength ; 
if allowed to become too mature the fiber will be 
«oarse, harsh and brittle. 

After the hemp is cut it is allowed to lie on 
the ground from four to eight days to dry. When 
dry the hemp is usually bound in small bundles 
und set up in shocks. In stacks, properly 
built, the hemp will remain uninjured foraperiod 
■of from two to three years, in fact it is claimed 
rthat the quality of the fiber is improved. 

"Eatting" is the process in which the vege- 
table gums surrounding the fiber are dissolved 
:and the fiber is at the same time freed somewhat 
from the woody interior portion of the stalk and 
also from the thin outer cuticle. These gums are 
not soluble in water, but they are dissolved by a 
kind of putrefaction which takes place when the 
stalks are immersed for some time in soft water or 
are exposed to the weather. 

Breaking is the process by which the fiber is 
-separated from the stalks and roughly cleaned. It 
prepares the fiber for market as rough hemp. The 
name has also been extended to various fibers re- 
sembling the true hemp, as, the Sisal Hemp of 
Mexico and Yucatan, whose product is well known 
in this country, especially in the form of twine 
for harvesting machines, as is also that of Manila 
Hemp. 



AND AGRICULTURE. 83 

OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

(third paper.) 

1. What is the difference between a tree 
iand a shrub? 

2. What is the importance of the green col- 
oring in the foliage of plants? 

3. What three distinct parts of the stem are 
shown in a cross section? 

4. What difference in the relation of the 
branches to the trunk, comparing a pine tree with 
an oak? 

5. What is the stem of a leaf called? That 
of a flower bud? 

6. Where are new branches of a tree formed? 

7. When is a flower complete? Perfect? 

8. What is the distinguishing feature be- 
(tween the eggs of a frog and those of a toad? 

9. What do frogs eat? Toads? Salamanders? 

10. What are the "three states of matter?" 
Do you know any substance that cannot exist in 
all three states? 

11. What is the difference between a phy- 
sical and chemical change? 

12. Of what is granite composed? Lime- 
stone? 

13. Where did wheat originate? 

14. Why is wheat classed with the grasses? 

15. Upon what does the value of wheat for 
milling purposes depend? 

16. What are the soil requirements for 
wheat? 

17. Where is the native home of rye? Of 
barley? 

18. What is smut in oats? 

19. In what way are leguminous crops of 
j)rimary importance? 

20. What are the products of the hemp plant? 



84 NATURE-SCIENCE 

[fourth paper.] 

*'It is only through the morning gate of the beautiful that you 
can penetrate into the realms of knowledge; that which w^e feel here 
as beauty, we shall one day know as truth/'— Schiller. 

FOURTH LESSON. 

Plant Studies. — Topic for special study. 

Evergreens. — Notice the peculiar structure of 
the wood, without ducts, with aromatic, resinous 
juice ; the awl-shaped or needle-shaped leaves ; 
the flowers destitute of floral envelopes; the cat- 
kin-like spikes of the staminate flowers and the 
ovule-bearing scales of the pistillate ones, ar- 
ranged in spikes, which finally ripen into cones. 
Different varieties should be studied, including 
pines, spruces, firs, larch, cypress, cedar and even 
the hemlock, and their characteristics and differ- 
ences noted. Study and germinate the seeds. 

Air Plants. — These are so called because they 
receive their entire sustenance from the air, hav- 
ing no connection with the soil. 

The most of these are small and not readily 
noticed, although they grow in profusion. Exam- 
ples of the most familiar ones are the lichens 
and mosses growing in great abundance on rocks, 
decaying walls, fences and the trunks and branches 
of trees. But there are large flowering plants 
which live in the same way, growing only where 
is abundance of warmth and moisture. Among 
these are large handsome flowers belonging to the 
Orchis family. 



AND AGRICULTURE. 85 



Parasitic Plants.— These plants not only grow 
upon other plants, the hosts, but they feed upon 
their juices by striking their roots, or haustoria 
(from Latin, haurire, to drink), into them. Moulds 
and blights are only the lowest forms of the plants 
that live in this way. Some of the false fox- 
gloves, the painted cup and some species of bas- 
tard toadflox, are partially parasitic on the roots 
of other plants; that is, they absorb the soil-water 
from the roots of the host, but they are not wholly 
parasitic, since they have chlorophyll in their 
leaves, and hence do their own starch-making. 
The mistletoe is a half -parasite, whose seed germ- 
inates on the boughs of trees. The haustoria be- 
come imbedded in the bark and engrafted into 
the growing wood until the mistletoe is as firmly 
united to the host as a natural branch. 

The wholly parasitic plants are absolutely de- 
pendent upon other plants, as they are destitute 
of the power of assimilation. The cancer-root is 
a root parasite of this class, as are also the beech 
drops and the pine-sap. The dodder is a common 
parasitic herb. One species, the flax-dodder, can 
live on only one kind of host. 

Wheat rust, so common on wheat and other 
grains, and even on grasses, is an excellent and 
interesting example of parasitic fungi. There are 
three kinds of spores in wheat rust. The first is 
the cluster-cup stage, and in this stage the spores 
are carried by the wind, usually from some other 
plant, as the barberry, and deposited upon the 
wheat. They germinate here and soon produce 
the red rust. The black spores of the black rust 



86 NATURE-SCIENCE 

are soon developed upon the stem or the sheath- 
These different kind of spores may be examined 
with a magnifying glass and their number, posi- 
tion, form, size, color, etc., determined. 

A lichen is known to be a combination of twa 
plants. The green cells belong to a species dis- 
tinct in itself, and the remainder, which is the 
larger portion of the growth, is a fungus parasitic 
upon it. The relation seems to be of mutual ben- 
efit, both having a vigorous growth. "Reindeer 
moss" and "Iceland moss" are lichens. 

Leaves. — Study the many forms under which 
leaves exist, namely, as scales, where they are 
small and thin, as in quick-grass, or large and 
thick, as in all bulbs ; as seed-leaves, or cotyledons; 
as in bud-scales. These may be considered as spe- 
cial forms of leaves in comparison with what we 
call leaves in the foliage of a plant. A careful 
examination of these forms should be made in or- 
der to determine why they shall be considered 
leaves. 

Leaves also appear as spines in several plants^ 
as in the barberry. By careful examination in 
summer nearly every gradation between ordinary 
leaves with sharp, bristly teeth and leaves which, 
are reduced to a branching spine may be seen on 
a single shoot. 

In some plants, too, as the pea, the upper part 
of each leaf becomes a tendril for the climbing 
plant. 

There are other interesting forms of leaves 
which may be discovered by close observation ; 
they may also be discovered, in some instances. 



AND AGRICULTURE. 87 



to serve a double purpose ; that is, they serve as 
foliage, to prepare nourishment, and also to per- 
form some special office or use, as that of a tendril^ 
or to store nourishment, etc. 

In winter, buds of hickory, buckeye, elm, ca- 
talpa, etc., may be studied carefully by dissec- 
tions and drawings. These should be contrasted 
and interpreted by comparison with development 
of leaf buds of early spring. 

Weeds.— Make a special study of what are 
commonly called weeds— "plants out of place"; 
plants that persist in growing where they are not 
desired; their insistency, their tenacity, their 
multiplicity, their great power to effect distribu- 
tion in a variety of ways, and their ability to 
crowd out more desirable plants. 

At the time of ripening there should be a col- 
lection of the worst seeds of the neighborhood. 
Later these may be planted in flower pots or earth- 
en vessels and their vitality tested ; care should 
be taken to note differences in amounts of heat 
and moisture, etc. 

Another interesting experiment may be ar- 
ranged by having pupils fill vessels with soil from 
different localities or sources, as, from different 
levels in fresh excavation ; from some spots known 
to have been kept free from weeds for several 
years ; from a corner of the cellar under an old 
house, etc. Keep these in a warm place, not per- 
mitting the soil to dry out, and watch the differ- 
ent plants as the seeds germinate and develop. 
How did the seeds get into the soil? How long 
have they remained there? Why are weeds said 



«8 NATURE- SCIENCE 

to be the farmer's friends? "Why do state legisla- 
tures make weed laws? (In other words, why 
may not a farmer or a gardener permit certain 
weeds to grow?) 

Algae (plural of Alga, from the Latin, sea- 
weed). These are mostly aquatic, and are most 
familiar as seaweeds and green-pond slimes. The 
velvety growths or the incrustations on the glass 
of aquaria are also examples. One of the plants, 
Spirogyra, commonly known as pond-scum or 
**frog-spit," is found in ponds, springs and even 
in clear streams. 

Algas have been classified according to color : 
il) The blue greens, slimy patches on damp wood 
or stones, or in shallow fresh water; (2) the green 
,algge, found chiefly in fresh water; (3) brown 
algge, such as kelps and rockweeds, chiefly marine ; 
(4) red algae, the seaweeds or sea-mosses, also 
imostly marine. There are altogether nearly 1,500 
species. 

Float a little spirogyra, pond-scum, in a white 
plate, on water just sufficient to cover the bottom 
of the vessel. By the aid of the microscope ob- 
serve the green color of the threads and their 
length compared with their thickness. Notice 
whether the filaments are about equal in diame- 
■ter. If the power of the microscope is sufficient, 
study their structure ; discover the shape of the 
vcells ; count the bands of chlorophyll as the num- 
ber of bands characterizes the species. 

Place some fresh pieces of water weed 
XElodae, common in ponds) under a funnel in a 
^deep glass jar or other vessel filled with spring 



AND AGRICULTURE. 89 



water or water from the brook. Invert over the 
end of the funnel a test-tube filled with water. 

Bubbles of gas will be seen to rise in the 
tube. Test for oxygen. (The carbon dioxid used 
is in solution in the water.) 

As an experiment to illustrate the importance 
of oxygen to the roots of a plant, select a thrifty 
plant, not aquatic, growing in a flower pot, and 
exclude all air from the roots by keeping the soil 
saturated with water, or by keeping the bottom of 
the plant standing deep in water. Note how the 
growth is checked and that the plant finally de- 
clines. 

Black Mould.— This may be found abundant 
in decaying fruits, as apples, peaches, etc., or by 
putting portions of damp bread in a warm place 
for several days, taking care to keep them moist 
and warm until patches of mould make their ap- 
pearance. Study them under a good microscope 
at different stages of growth, both in fruit and in 
the bread. The slender threads which form the 
network covering the bread surface are called 
hyphae, and the entire network the mycelium. 
Note the delicate threads rising at intervals from 
the mycelium which terminate in small globules. 
These globules are spore-cases. Compare spore 
cases in different specimens, as well as in the 
same specimen, and note the change of color as 
they approach maturity. This study may be con- 
tinued by experimenting with the spores to ob- 
serve the development of hyphae, etc. 



90 NATURE-SOIENOE 

ANIHAL STUDIES. 

Frogs. — Collect frogs' and toads' eggs and* 
keep them in shallow vessels of water. The bot- 
tom of the vessel may best be covered with clean 
sand and gravel. A stone should also be placed 
in the vessel rising to the surface. Spirogyra and 
other water plants should be put into the water^ 
The plants not only keep the water supplied with 
oxygen, but they also furnish food for the tad- 
poles. Bread and small bits of meat may be add- 
ed for food, but the uneaten portions should be 
removed before they make the water impure. 
"Watch the tadpoles. Note how they breathe. 
Compare with fish. Study their development in 
every way. Notice that the eggs of toads lie in 
single rows, inclosed in transparent jelly. At 
first they are about the size of a small pin-head^ 
black above and light on the lower surface. The 
whole mass, after contact with the water, becomes 
eight or ten times as large as the body of the 
mother toad. The number of eggs at a single lay- 
ing, by actual count, has been found to be, in 
some instances, more than 10,000. 

As the egg is sufficiently large to be observed 
without the aid of the microscope, the develop- 
ment may be observed readily. The egg becomes 
somewhat elongated, then the tadpoles hatch and 
begin feeding upon their gelatinous envelope. 
When this is gone they eat the slimes in the wa- 
ter, on the sides of the vessel, and on everything 
in the water. They grow quite rapidly; the hind 
legs appear then the fore legs, the tail is absorbed 
and the little toads come from the water upon 



AND AGRICULTURE. 91 

the stone that has been placed for the purpose. 
The work the tadpoles do in the water as scaven- 
gers should be emphasized. In ponds their feed- 
ing habits may also be observed, and it will be- 
seen that matter that would otherwise pollute the 
water is taken up by them. This will be a reve- 
lation to those who have believed water impure 
because of the presence of tadpoles. The value 
of toads in the extermination of insects, etc.^ 
should also be observed and emphasized. 

Bees. — Study bees as types of a useful and 
important class of insects. They should be stud- 
ied as individuals and by comparison. Note that 
the abdomen is thrown forward upon and inti- 
mately united with the thorax ; the large head^ 
large compound eyes and three ocelli. The 
mouth parts are well developed, both for biting 
and feeding on the sweets of plants, the ligula 
being especially developed for lapping nectar.. 
Note also that the wings are adapted for powerful 
and long-sustained flights. The metamorphosis 
of each insect of this division of insects is most 
complete. Study the larvae, observing size, shape 
and feeding. Compare cocoons of pupae. Notice 
the division into three classes, males, females and 
workers, and the division of labor among them. 
The antennas are short and filiform, the 
mandibles large, stout, toothed, and the maxillaa 
developed into three subdivisions. (1) the palpi, 
usually six-jointed, (2) the labial palpi, generally 
four-jointed, and (3) the prolongation of the 
ligula, which is highly developed, being furnished 
with a secondary pair of palpi, the paraglossae, 



^92 NATURE-SCIENCE 



while in the pollen-gathering species the ligula is 
of great length. If possible observe the manner 
in which the bee gathers pollen, first collecting it 
with its mandibles, where it is gathered by the 
tarsi, from whence it is passed to the intermediate 
legs with many peculiar scrapings and twistings 
of the limbs, then similarly passed on and depos- 
ited, according to the nature of the bee, upon the 
posterior tibife and tarsi, or upon the under side 
of the abdomen. 

The abdomen in the larva state consists of 
ten segments, but in the adult bees there are six 
complete segments in that of the females and 
seven in the males. 

Bees secrete wax in thin, transparent, mem- 
branous plates on the under side of the abdominal 
segments. The honey is elaborated by an un- 
known chemical process from the food contained 
in what is known as the crop, from which it is re- 
gurgitated into the honey cells. 

The nests of bees, as well as those of wasps, 
>etc., should be collected with the young in various 
stages of growth, and in such numbers as to show 
their different stages of construction. The cells 
of honey bees are hexagonal in shape, except in 
the case of the queen cells, which are flask-shaped. 
The drone cells are one-fifth larger than the work- 
er cells; honey cells are larger than brood cells. 

Compare the honey bee with other insects, as 
hornet, wasp, bumble bee, house fly, etc., to dis- 
cover points of resemblance as well as points of 
difference. 

Follow a honey bee for a short time and note 



AND AGRICULTURE. 9» 



what it does, how many flowers it visits, the kinds 
of flowers and the flowers they seem to like best- 
Study a hive of honey bees to discover if you 
can distinguish the three kinds in the hive, the- 
workers, the queen and the drones. 

Interesting experiments may be made as to 
the value of bees in cross-pollination, by covering 
a clump of buds of plants, or the branch of a fruit 
tree before the buds are open, and comparing the 
fruit with that produced by buds of a similar kind 
left uncovered. Note the activity of bees as com- 
pared with other insects in the matter of cross- 
pollination and their relative efiiciency in this 
important work. 

It will be a matter of interest to collect sta- 
tistics of the yield of honey in a neighborhood or 
locality, and what influences affect the yield when 
there is a material diflTerence in colonies. 

Under ordinary condition honey bees collect 
all their honey within a radius of two miles, but 
they have been known to travel twice as far under 
peculiar circumstances to find flowers. 

While the bee industry has grown to great 
proportions in this country, the honey bee is not 
native to America, having been imported from 
Europe. There are only a few races of bees that 
excel in those points that are desired by bee- 
keepers : 1. The black or brown or German bees, 
which have been here about 200 years and have 
become the common wild bees of the country.. 
Their defects are principally their bad temper 
and their failure to resist attacks of the bee 
moth. 2. The Italian bees, whose principal de- 



M NATURE-SOIENOE 

feet is their failure to winter well in the colder 
parts of the country ; otherwise they are deserv- 
edly popular. (3). The Oarniolans, whose fault 
is excessive swarming. 4. The Cyprians, or Syri- 
ans, imported from Cyprus. These bees fill their 
cells so full of honey that it gives the honey a 
dead or "watery" appearance, which injures its 
sale. 

It is interesting to know that in addition to 
Jioney bees it is estimated that there are some 
five thousand different kinds of bees. None of 
these have the perfection of organization or the 
stability in this respect that the honey bee has. 

The Bumble bees are an interesting study, 
and are valuable because of their services in the 
fertilization of flowers, especially red clover. The 
queen having hibernated during the winter, col- 
lects honey and pollen in the early spring and, 
having selected a home, usually a deserted mouse 
Jiest, builds cells and deposits eggs in them, and 
feeds the young until the larv^ emerge. The 
first bees, which are small workers, then take the 
place of the queen in the labor of collecting honey 
and pollen and building cells. Broods that follow 
are large workers, who continue the work and in- 
crease the store of honey. Queens and drones 
hatch out usually in August, desert the nest and 
scatter over the fields. The workers and drones 
die later and the queens alone live through the 
winter to begin the same process the following 
spring. 

There are also many species of wasps and hor- 
nets. Most of these burrow in the ground and 



AND AGRIC ULTURE. 95 

make their nests there, feeding their young in- 
sects, spiders, etc., instead of pollen and honey. 
The common mud dauber (mud wasp) is easiest 
obtained for study. The most useful to orchard- 
ists and gardeners as an insect destroyer is the 
white-faced hornet. They are injurious, however, 
to grapes, peaches and even to pears, as they 
gnaw holes in the fruit which may lead to great 
injury to the crop. Like the bumble bee, the 
queen alone lives over winter. She begins alone 
to build her nest in the spring, making cells in 
which she lays eggs, then feeding the larvae on 
finely chewed insects. As soon as the first brood 
emerge from the cells they begin to assist in the 
work of nest building and the bringing of food 
for the larvas of the larger workers which follow 
them. A last brood of males and females are 
brought forth in the early fall, after which the 
workers and males die and the queens hibernate 
to begin all over the next spring. 

Studies in Chemistry. — Prepare and examine 
the nature of the following gases : Oxygen, hydro- 
gen, carbon dioxid, nitrogen. 

Studies in Physics. — The lever classes and ac- 
tion of each. Different classes of machines. 

Studies in Geology. — Collect specimens of 
rocks, clays, sand stones, shales, etc., of locality. 
Examine and test for limestone. Study structure, 
formation of clay beds, the work of pebbles. 

Studies in Astronomy. — Note the changes from 
week to week of the time of the rising and the set- 
ting of the sun. The sun as the source of all 



96 NATURE-SCIENCE 

heat on the earth. Phases of moon. Explain 
reflected light of moon. 

AGRICULTURE. 

Corn. 

Indian Corn, or Maize, belongs to the family 
of grasses. Observation will show that the veins 
of the leaves run parallel and that the stalk is 
jointed like that of grass. Cross sections of the 
stalk will show it to be tubular, its different por- 
tions being readily demonstrated. 

1. The outer body, or shell, is hard and 
tough, giving great strength to the stalk. 

2. The inner portion is made up of a soft, 
pithy, cellular mass which, upon closer examina- 
tion, is found to consist of parallel fibers running 
lengthwise from joint to joint. 

The corn plant grows from six to fifteen feet 
in height, its color varies from a yellowish green 
to a dark green during the growing season, de- 
pending upon the character of the soil and the 
amount of moisture. When the period of the 
ripening of the grain begins, the color changes to 
yellow and brown, with sometimes a tinge of 
orange and red. 

Closer inspection and the study of the plant 
as a whole will show : 

1. One central shaft, there being no branches. 

2. The leaves are arranged alternately on 
the stem and are attached to it directly, without 
any petioles. 

The study of the leaf : 

1. They are long and ribbon-like. 



AND AGRICULTURE. 9T 

2. A heavy midrib extends through the cen- 
ter from the base to the tip. 

3. The veins run parallel. 

4. The leaves arch upward in a graceful 
curve, the inner part sloping downward to the 
shaft and the outer part sloping downward and 
away from it. 

5. The attachment around the base is such 
as to give them a trough. 

3. The blossom of the corn is divided into 
two parts — 

a. The tassel is situated at the very top 
of the plant. It is the pollen-bearing or stami- 
nate part. 

b. The second portion is the pollen receiv- 
ing or pistillate part. It is situated lower down 
on the stalk. Sometimes there are two or three 
of the latter, but usually only one. They are 
called the ears. 

4. Aerial roots, which appear just before the 
plant is full grown. They grow out in circles near 
the base of the stalk, and they brace the stalk of 
corn materially against the force of the wind. 

5. The ripened ear — 

1. The kernels of grains are arranged in. 
rows. 

2. The cob is a long, cylindrical, rough, 
woody core. 

3. During the early stages of the ear the 
cob is green and soft, and connected with it are 
long white or green threads, commonly called 
silks, but which in reality are the pistils of the 
blossom. 



"93 NATURE-SCIENCE 

4. These pistils receive the fallen pollen 
and carry it back to the points of attachment of 
the cob, at which place it produces the seeds or 
■grain of the corn. 

5. After the maturity of the grain the pis- 
tils or silks die and turn brown. 

6. The whole ear of corn is covered com- 
pletely by large, tightly-fitting leaves called the 
husk, which must be removed before grains can 
he shelled from the cob. 

After the seeds or grains of corn have been 
placed in suitably prepared soil they germinate 
in a few days. But a single blade is sent up as 
..all grasses do, the seed consisting of but one coty- 
?iedon. As the plant continues to grow it puts out 
leaves, first one side, then on the other, so that in 
the mature plant there are two rows of leaves up 
the stalk on opposite sides; these being arranged 
alternately on the stem, as has been said before. 
The tassel and the ears appear last of all ; and 
as soon as the grains in the ear are fully devel- 
oped the whole plant dies. 

Cultivation of Corn. 

1. Preparation of the soil. 

In the central states corn is usually planted 
in the months of May and June. The plowing 
and harrowing of the soil is usually done just be- 
fore the time of planting. In speaking of this 
■subject, an authority says: "Experience has 
proved that plowing the ground late in the fall 
whelps to catch and retain water. The plowing 
leaves the ground loose, rough and open, so that 



AND AGRIOULTURE. 99 

winter snows and rains are caught and retained 
in the small cavities due to the plowing. It is 
often in a better condition, too, for early spring 
working than ground not plowed in the fall, and 
an early and successful crop can be started under 
more favorable conditions than would otherwise 
be possible. When it is dry enough to work, a 
good harrowing generally will reduce it to a 
smooth, mellow condition, giving it the power to 
retain the largest amount of heat and moisture." 

2. Planting of the seed. 

After suitable preparation of the soil the seed 
is planted in rows about four feet apart, the plants 
being from two to four feet apart in the row. It 
is planted with a hand planter or with corn drills 
drawn by horses which plant one or two rows at a 
time. 

8. Relation and necessity of moisture. 

But a small percentage of the weight of the 
dry plant is obtained from the soil through the 
roots. Immense quantities of water are taken up 
through the root system, but it does not enter in- 
to the composition of the plant. After passing 
through the plant it is given off to the atmosphere 
through minute pores or openings in the leaves of 
the plants. Just as in the human body the sweat 
pores open when a man becomes warm, perspira- 
tion collects on the skin, evaporates and cools the 
body — so in the case of plants the transpiration of 
water cools the plant and prevents it from wilt- 
ing on a warm day. If for any reason the root 
system cannot supply the moisture for this 
transpiration the plant wilts. 



100 NATURE-SCIENCE 

4. Plowing of the corn. 

Incessant cultivation is necessary to destroy 
weeds which soon spring up on account of the 
plants being so far apart. This cultivation not 
only destroys the weeds, but keeps the soil in a 
better condition for holding moisture and supplies 
necessary aeration to the soil. It may be said 
that corn should be plowed four or five times 
during a season, best while the plants are small — 
after the plants have become large enough to 
shade the ground further cultivation is unneces- 
sary. 

5. Harvesting. 

Corn is gathered in the late autumn or at any 
time during the winter. By some it is husked in 
the field ; others cut and gather i1 , leaving the 
husking till the corn is needed. Fodder makes a 
good, rough feed for cattle and horses during 
autumn and winter — the stalks, being tough and 
coarse, are not eaten, usually, unless prepared by 
shredding machines, etc. 

Results of study and investigation as reported 
through the Department of Agriculture from 
which we quote, show that there is apparently the 
same average amount of ash, oil, and albuminoids 
in a corn wherever it grows in this country, with 
the exception of the Pacific Slope, where, as with 
wheat, there seems to be no facility for obtaining 
or assimilating nitrogen. It maintains about the 
same percentage of albuminoids under all circum- 
stances, and is not affected by its surroundings in 
this respect. 

Our conclusion must be, then, that corn can 



AND AGRICULTURE. 101 

supply itself with nitrogen under varied circum- 
stances, but that it rarely is able to assimilate 
more than a certain amount, nor will it fall far 
below this amount. The bushels of corn may 
vary, and the size of the grain, but the quantity 
of albuminoids is practically unchanged." 

We quote also from a report of the University 
of Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station : 

"Aside from the hull which surrounds the 
kernel, there are three principal parts in a grain 
of corn : 

1. "The darker colored and rather hard and 
horny layer lying next to the hull, principally in 
the edges and toward the tip end of the kernel, 
where it is about one-eighth of an inch in thick- 
ness. 

2. "The white starchy appearing part occu- 
pying the crown end of the kernel and usually al- 
so immediately surrounding, or partially sur- 
rounding, the germ. 

3. "The germ itself which occupies the cen- 
tral part of the kernel toward the tip end. 

"The horny layer which usually constitutes 
about 65 per cent of the corn kernel contains a 
large proportion of the total protein in the kernel. 

"The white starchy part constitutes about 20 
per cent of the whole kernel, and contains a small 
proportion of the total protein. The germ con- 
stitutes only about 10 per cent of the corn kernel, 
but, while it is rich in protein, it also contains 
more than 85 per cent of the total oil contents of 
the whole kernel, the remainder of the oil being 
■distributed in all the other parts." 



102 NATURE-SCIE NCE 

These facts are of value in the selection of 
seed corn, as, if one wishes to select those ears 
of high protein content he has only to choose those 
whose kernels show a relatively small proportion 
of the white, starchy part surrounding the germ. 
If corn is to be propagated for the oil content, it 
is only necessary to select those ears whose kernels 
have a larger proportion of germ, etc. It is not 
the absolute, but the proportionate, size or quan- 
tity of germ or of white starch which serves as a 
guide in making these selections. 

''The price of corn varies, say, from one-half 
to one cent per pound. 

"The cost of protein in the principal stock- 
feeding states varies from 3 to 5 cents per pounds 
In other words, protein is several times more val- 
uable than corn itself, consequently stock-feeders 
want more protein in corn. 

''The price of corn starch varies from 2 or 3 
cents to even 10 cents per pound, depending upon 
the wholesale or retail nature of the sale. The 
manufacturers of starch and glucose sugar, glucose 
syrup, and other starch, want more starch in corn." 

A bushel of ordinary corn, weighing 56 pounds, 
contains about 41 pounds of germ, 36 pounds of 
dry starch, 7 pounds of gluten, and 5 pounds of 
bran or hull, the balance in weight being made 
up of water, soluble matter, etc. The value of 
the germ lies in the fact that it contains more 
than 40 per cent of corn oil, worth, say, 5 cents 
per pound, while the starch is worth 1^ cents, the 
gluten 1 cent and the hull i cent per pound. 

"It can readily be seen that a variety of corn 



AND AGRICULTURE. lOS 

containing, say one pound more oil per bushel,, 
would be in large demand." These statements 
and suggestions appeal to the commercial side of 
the question. 

It has been estimated that a crop of 50 bush- 
els of Indian corn per acre, with the stalks, con- 
tains about 64 pounds of nitrogen, 24 pounds of? 
phosphoric acid and 36 pounds of potash. Esti- 
mating one-half of this plant food returned to the 
soil after being fed to animals, this means a loss- 
of 32 pounds of nitrogen, 12 pounds of phosphoric- 
acid and 18 pounds of potash per acre. The most 
of the lost nitrogen may be restored if clover is 
in the rotation. 

Corn is the most useful, the most productive^ 
and the most easily raised and harvested of all 
plants. 

POTATO. 

The potato plant belongs to the night shades, 
a family of plants which contains poisonous prin- 
ciples. The potato is a native of Mexico and Cen- 
tral America, but has been introduced into and 
cultivated in many countries and climates. 

The potato owes its value to the peculiar habit 
of developing underground slender leafless- 
branches, which differ in character and office from, 
the true roots, and which gradually enlarge at the 
free end, thus producing the tubers. In its na- 
tive state the tuber is no larger than the plum or 
cherry, but by cultivation it has increased in size 
to its present dimensions. 

Scattered over the tuber are a number of 



104 NATURE-SCIENCE 

buds, commonly called eyes, and from these buds 
•new plants grow. Starch and other matters are 
^stored up in the tubers, and in due season are ren- 
dered available for the nutrition of the young 
shoots when they begin to grow. The young 
■shoots derive their nourishment from the parent 
tuber until development of roots and leaves ena- 
bles them to obtain sufficient nutrition and then 
take care of themselves. The potato tuber con- 
sists for the main part of a mass of cells filled 
with starch and encircled by a thin, corky rind. 
A few woody fibers traverse the tubers. 

2. The following may be given as the aver- 
age composition of the potato : 

Nitrogen matters 2.1 per cent 

-Starch, etc 18.8 

Sugar 3.2 

Eat 2 

Saline matter 7 

Water 75. 

From the above it will be noticed that the 
value of the potato as an article of diet consists 
for the most part in the starch it contains. The 
quantity of nitrogen it contains is small. 

The potato plant grows from two to four feet 
in height and has a tendency to vine or run along 
the ground. All of the nutritious substances of 
the upper portion of the plant are withdrawn and 
stored in the tubers as soon as blooming is over. 
The vines wither quickly and in the course of a 
few weeks scarcely a trace is left. 

Potatoes are planted in rows about four feet 
apart, so as to readily admit of cultivation ; the 



AND AGRICULTURE. 105 

hills in each row are from two to three feet apart. 
The time of planting varies according to the va- 
riety; from the time of the last disappearance of 
frost from the ground until July. The early va- 
rieties mature about the first of July, the late 
varieties in September and October. 

The usual manner of keeping potatoes during 
the winter is to place them in a cellar or bins, or 
to cover them in the field in large heaps. This 
later method is best accomplished by first cover- 
ing the potatoes with a layer of straw and then 
with earth of sufficient depth to keep out frost 
and to shed rain. 

SWEET POTATO. 

The sweet potato is cultivated for the most 
part in tropical countries for its tuberous root 
which is an article of diet greatly in request. 

The leaves are cordate, entire and borne on 
slender twining stems. The flowers are borne on 
long stalks in loose clusters, they have a white or 
rosy funnel shaped corolla. 

The edible portion of the plant is the root 
which dilates into large club shaped masses filled 
with starch. 

The plant is not known in a truly wild state. 

Natur^-g>rtf nr? aub Agrtrultur?. 

OUTLINE QUIZZES. 
(fourth paper.) 

1. What peculiarity is there in the structure 
of the wood of evergreens? The flowers? 

2. What is the difference between air plants 
and parasitic plants? 



106 NATURE-SCIENCE 

3. What is wheat rust? What are its stages 
of development? 

4. What peculiarity is there in the composi- 
tion of lichen? 

5. What are some of the peculiar forms of 
leaves? 

6. What are weeds? What are some of their 
peculiarities? 

7. What are algae? Give examples. 

8. What is black mould? Where found? 

9. Why are water plants kept in an 
aquarium? 

10. How does the size of honey cells com- 
pare with those of drones and workers in the 
hives of a honey bee? 

11. Why are spiders often found in the nests 
of wasps? 

12. Give practical examples of the different 
classes of levers. 

13. Why is Indian corn classed with the 
grasses? 

14. Name all the food products of corn. 

15. Why is the corn crop cultivated during 
growth? 

16. What are the three principal parts of a 
grain of corn? 

17. What portion of a kernel of corn is 
starch? 

18. What elements are taken from the soil 
in the production of a crop of corn? 

19. What is the principal food content of the 
potato? 

20. What gives the sweet potato its value as 
a food? 



AN D AGRICULTURE. 107 

[fifth PAPEK.J 
"Great Nature spoke; observant man obeyed." 

FIFTH LESSON. 
PLANT STUDY. 

The Propagation of Plants. — The natural methw 
od of plant propagation is by two general ways — 
by seeds and by buds. If we wish to obtain cor- 
rect ideas as to how plants grow, etc., we must 
begin at the beginning. Previously, perhaps, we 
have observed, in a general way, the plants we 
have studied. We have become familiar with 
them — with their organs, with their general ap- 
pearance, with some of their phenomena, etc. A 
few familiar seeds should now be studied as to 
structure ; then they should be sprouted and their 
growth observed closely. 

It is scarcely necessary to say that the seeds 
must be good, that is, well matured, in order that 
they shall germinate. Their condition in this re- 
spect will depend upon their age, for if preserved 
too long they may lose their vitality ; upon the 
healthful condition of the plant which produced 
them, and upon the conditions in which they have 
been stored and preserved. Of course, seeds vary 
in the length of time they retain their vitality 
with the kind of plant and somewhat with the 
conditions of both plant and seed developments 
Tests with seeds of the same kind but of different 
ages, etc., will be interesting experiments in thi» 
connection. Do this if possible. 



108 NATURE-SCIENCE 

It must be taken into consideration that prop- 
•er conditions as to air, moisture and temperature 
must exist in order that seeds shall germinate. 

Experiments : 1. Place soft, wet paper in the 
bottom of four or five vessels (glass tumblers will 
answer) to the depth of about one inch. Put the 
same number of soaked peas in each vessel, cover 
the vessels and place them where they will be 
subject to different temperatures, say from 35 to 
50 degrees. Keep the temperatures as nearly con- 
stant as possible, and the moisture in each equal 
to that of the others. Note the rate and extent 
of germination in each. 

2. Arrange the vessels as before, except as 
to amount of moisture in each, placing in one dry 
seeds on moistened paper; in another place seeds 
that have been thoroughly soaked on paper a lit- 
tle moistened; in another, place on thoroughly 
soaked paper seeds that have been soaked ; in an- 
other have sufficient water to nearly cover the 
seeds, etc. Place the vessels where they will 
have the same temperature and note the times of 
germination. 

3. Prepare in a similar way vessels contain- 
ing seeds with conditions favorable as to moisture 
and temperature, but with different provisions as 
to the admission of air, and note results. 

An interesting experiment, showing effect of 
germinating seeds upon the surrounding air, may 
be made by removing some of the air in one of the 
tightly closed vessels in the last experiment by 
means of an "ink-filler" or "medicine-dropper.'* 
Force this air through clear, filtered lime water 



AND AGRICULTURE^ 10» 



and note the result. Is it the same as when the 
breath is blown through lime water by means of a, 
tube'? (Carbon dioxid renders lime water a milky- 
color ) These are familiar experiments which- 
will 'suggest others equally familiar and inter- 

Considerable technical work might be done m 
this connection, but it is thought best to restrict 
the experiments somewhat as to amount of work 
done, and to limit the extent to which we enter 
into detail. Do not try to have children learn 
the names of any but essential parts, etc., of each 

seed studied. , ., , a -p^^^ 

Seeds should be studied both dry and after 
several hours' soaking. Observe the plumule, or 
first bud, in each of several kinds of seeds, as 
bean, pea, squash, etc. Split the seed into its 
two halves, observing their attachment, the thick- 
ness of these halves, each of which is a cotyledon 
or seed leaf. Do not fail to have sketches of coty- 
ledons, etc. Compare the bean and the pea as to 
points of difference. Compare also the peas with 
corn at different stages of germination, noting 
the formation of roots, development of plumule, 
etc Observe that the corn has but one cotyledon 
and the fact that it remains nearly altogether in 
the buried grain, acting as a digesting and absorb- 
ing organ through which the food stored without 
the embryo is tranferred to the growing plant 
after it is changed to liquid form, as m the case 

of most seeds. . , ., , j i. 

The plumule, or first bud, with its abundant 

supply of plant food stored about it, in all seeds^ 



110 NATURE-SCIENCE 

is more than able to preserve the stock from which 
it sprang and to increase the number of plants. 
For instance, a farmer may produce the same 
stock, and even the same variety, of corn, wheat 
or garden vegetables year after year by planting 
seed of the previous year's crop, and harvest 
much more than the original amount planted. 
This is not true of all plants, especially of fruit 
tress, vines and shrubs, in respect to variety, 
neither can new varieties be secured in this way. 

In order to maintain varieties as well as to 
produce new ones, such means as layers, cuttings, 
grafting and budding are used. Quicker results, 
as well as the production of dwarf varieties of 
trees, are also obtained in some instances by 
grafting. 

A layer is formed by bending to the ground a 
vigorous young shoot and covering it with three 
or four inches of earth. Roots will form at the 
covered portion and leaves and branches from the 
the tip. Layers are generally allowed to lie one 
season before they are severed from the parent 
stem. The best results from this means of propa- 
gation are obtained from plants which have soft 
wood. Fall is the best season for layering, 
although good results may be obtained from begin- 
ning in the spring. 

Cuttings are detached shoots of plants insert- 
ed in soil or in water. If the cutting is of soft 
wood, there are usually several joints. In hard 
wood cuttings there should be two or more buds. 
Grapes, currants, and such house plants as gerani- 
ums, etc., are propagated by cuttings. 



AND AGRICULTURE. Ill 

In grafting, a plant, or part of it, is made to 
grow upon another plant. The stock is the stem 
into which the graft is transplanted. The part 
which is transplanted is called the scion (cion). 
There are many methods of grafting, but all are 
only different ways of matching the line between 
the bark and wood of the scion to that of the 
stock, then fastening them together until the 
cambium layers of the two grow together. 

There may be one bud or more in the scion, 
and in the most common method of grafting the 
scion is inserted in a split in the wood of the 
stock, taking care to make close contact between 
the living part of both scion and stock (cleft 
grafting) ; or the stock may be cut off at the junc- 
tion of root and stem with a smooth, slanting cut 
about one inch in length, placing this cut in con- 
tact with a similar one of a scion of the same size 
(whip grafting) ; or by preparing stock and scion 
as in the latter method, then splitting both a lit- 
tle way near the middle and carefully sliding 
them together, the "tongue" of one within the 
cleft of the other (whip-tongue grafting). Graft- 
ing wax usually prepared from resin, beeswax and 
tallow, is used to cover the wound so that parts 
may be prevented from dying out. Light ban- 
dages are necessary to hold parts in place, and are 
put on before the wax is applied. 

Budding is only one form of grafting. It is 
performed by slipping a bud with a small portion 
of its own bark under the bark of the stock. A 
*'T" cleft is made in the bark of the stock, the 
angles are carefully lifted up and the bud is 



112 NATURE-SOIENOE 

slipped beneath and tied firmly with a strip of 
cloth or a withe of coarse, tough grass. Budding 
is usually done in the fall, that the bud may be 
ready to begin growth in the spring. As scon as 
it begins to shoot the stem of the stock is cut off 
a few inches above it. 

Buds are always grafted on plants of the same 
kind or in some closely related tree, and care 
should be taken to select only those buds or scions 
whose varieties it is desired to perpetuate. 

Common cleft grafting is employed if new va- 
rieties are to be added to an old tree. Whip- 
grafting in some form is employed in grafting 
scions on young stocks, as seedlings used in nurse- 
ry stock for apples, pears, etc. Budding is usually 
done in propagating peaches, cherries, plums, etc. 
Animal Studies. 

Fishes. — The following points are suggested, 
which may be varied to suit conditions and ad- 
vantages for observation : Habitat absolutely 
aquatic. Discuss results if a fresh water fish 
were transferred to salt water, etc. Call atten- 
tion to the fact that certain species, as salmon, 
sturgeon, shad and some others, ascend rivers to 
spawn, while others, as the eel, pass from the riv- 
ers to the sea for the same purpose. 

The respiratory organs, gills, are delicate 
fringes or laminae, supported on bony arches. In 
most species these are covered by a kind of lid 
composed of three pieces, the operculum (L. ope- 
rire, to cover), the sub-operculum and the inter- 
operculum. This three-coated gill-cover plays on 
one called the pre-operculum. 



AND AGRICULTURE. H^' 



The gills are constantly bathed with water 
through alternate openings of the mouth and gill 
covers, and the necessary oxygen is thus obtained 
from the air which is mingled with the water. 

The locomotive organs are called fins. Those 
corresponding to the anterior locomotive organs 
of higher vertebrates are named pectorals, and 
those corresponding to the posterior, veiitrals. 
The vertical fins on the back are called dorsal, 
those beneath the tail anal, and that at the end 
of the tail caudal. Which are used in swimmmg? 
Which in balancing and directing? 

Discuss the swimming bladder and the func- 
tions that have been ascribed to it ; also study the 
vertebra, their structure and shape, and note the 
fact that the spinal column bends freely laterally 
but not vertically. 

Notice the one large complicated muscle on 
each side extending from head to tail, and the 
fact that these furnish the principal motive powers. 
Observe the smalluess of the brain and de- 
termine whether it fills the cavity in which it is 
situated. 

The eye has no motion (a few exceptions) and 
the iris has no power of contraction or dilation 
apparently. 

Most fishes reproduce by means of eggs, that 
is, they are oviparous. The spawning season and 
habits of those that are accessible should be 
closely observed. 

Studies in Pliysics.— Diffusion or transference- 
of heat— Illustrated by as simple means as 



114 NATURE-SCIENCE 

possible the three processes of diffusion of heat, — 
conduction, convection and rediation. 1. Con- 
duction, — By means of an iron wire or rod show 
how heat gradually travels from the end placed 
in a flame toward the end held in the hand. Note 
also the different degrees of heat between the 
two ends after one end is heated. The medium 
through which heat passes in this way is called a 
conductor. Test the conductivity of several 
metals by arranging wires of iron, brass, copper, 
etc., so that an end of each is in the same flame 
at the same time, and noting how near the fingers 
can approach the flame along each wire at the end 
of about a minute. 

Why does water seem colder than air when 
they have both been subject to the same tem- 
perature for a considerable length of time and 
when the thermometer marks the same degree 
of temperature in both? Why does marble seem 
colder than wood under the same conditions? Ob- 
serve that clothing keeps the body warm because 
the fibres of which the cloth is composed are poor 
conductors of heat, and because the air which is 
between the different parts of the clothing is not 
a good conductor and the heat of the body cannot 
readily escape. Make a list of materials that are 
good conductors of heat. 

Show that the diffusion of heat takes place by 
convection when the body moves or when there is 
relative motion between its parts, as in the heat- 
ing of water. Do this by illustration. 

The explanation of diffusion of heat by radiation 
should be deferred until the subject can be taken 



AND AGRICULTURE. 115 

up in a special way in connection with other forms 
of radiant energy. 

Light. — Illustrations should be given showing 
that light always moves in a straight line. The 
reflection of light should also be illustrated and in 
this connection, the refraction of light which has 
been previously considered as an interesting phe- 
nomenon, should be taken up and explained. 
Familiar experiments such as placing a stick or a 
straw obliquely in a vessel of clear water and 
noting its broken appearances, or by trying to lo- 
cate correctly a coin placed in a deep vessel of clean 
water, will demonstrate that rays of light are bent 
in one direction when entering a rarer medium 
and in another when entering a denser substance. 

Interesting and instructive experiments may 
also be made with simple lenses, as reading glasses, 
eye glasses, etc., and explain how microscopes 
and telescopes are formed. Consider also in this 
connection the seven colors of the solar spectrum 
and the fact that bodies are colored only when all 
the colors except that by which each is known are 
absorbed and this particular color is reflected. 

Studies in Chemistry. — In connection with the 
germination of seeds to show that carbonic acid 
gas (carbon dioxid) is given off, fill a small fruit 
jar about half full with beans or peas that have 
been soaked twenty-four hours ; add a little luke 
warm water and cork the jar. Let it stand for 
twenty-four hours and test for carbon dioxid by 
inserting a lighted taper. If the taper is extin- 
guished it will show that carbon dioxid has taken 
the place of oxygen in the jar. 



116 NATURE-SCIENCE 

Test for starch in a potato tuber, a grain of corn^ 
etc., by spreading a drop of tincture of iodine oa 
the cut or exposed surface. The presence of starch 
will be indicated by change to blue or violet 
color. 

To show that starch is formed only in the green 
part of leaves, take a leaf of geranium, or other- 
plant, variegated with white, that has been in 
sunlight. Place in hot alcohol to disolve out the 
chlorophyll, until the green color disappears, and 
then stain with iodine. Note that the parts of the- 
leaf which were green are now violet-brown indi- 
cating starch, while the white parts are not colored 
by the iodine. 

Geological Studies. — We spoke especially of 
quartzites in our last lesson. There are some 
rocks that appear to be composed wholly of one 
mineral, and yet they are not quartzites. They 
are mostly dark-colored, slate-colored or blackish 
or greenish in appearance. If these are banded 
in difl'erent colors, or are capable of splitting into 
sheets, they are argillites. Roofing slates and 
most other hard slates are included among them^ 
If a rock is very fine, blackish and harder than 
slate, it may be an aphanite. It is a porphyry if 
it consists of a very fine hard, uniform reddish or 
greenish base having crystals of feldspar scattered 
through it. 

Bowlder rocks are all hard, crystalline, and 
generally foreign to the region where they lie. 
Sometimes fragments of rocks are found that are 
not hard and crystalline and far fetched, but 
which come from ledges appearing at the surface. 



AND AGRICULTURE. 117 

not far away. The most familiar uncrystalline 
ledges are of sandstone, limestone and shale. 
Sandstone is composed chielly of grains of quartz. 
They are like those in a granular quartzite but not 
60 brilliant or so firmly compacted together. 

A grindstone is a fine sandstone. 

It should be shown by experiment how sand 
grains may be cemented together by lime or iron. 
A rusty nail left for some time in damp sand will 
cement sand grains. 

Studies in Astronomy. — 1. The names of the 
planets. 2. The difference between planet and 
star. 3. The zodiac, the twelve parts, or signs. 
4. Eclipses — their cause, in a general way. 5. 
Tides — wliat they are ; their cause ; fiood tide ; ebb 
tide; springtide; neap tide. 

AGRICULTURE. 

(fifth paper.) 
Farm Animals. 

No study is of more pleasing interest than 
that of the domestic animals about us. To know 
them, to understand their life, to minister to 
their well being, is but to make us closer and bet- 
ter observers, and better and more intelligent in 
every way. To do this it is not necessary to pet 
«r to pamper animals, but to attempt to make 
them comfortable and to develop them in every 
way that they may be the best types of animals 
of their kind. 

All farm animals existed at one time in a 
wild state. They were tamed by man to serve 



118 NATURE-SCIENCE 

him in some useful capacity. By commencing 
with wolves when young, the American Indians 
taught them to assist in the hunt, and in this way 
dogs have originated wherever wolves were found: 
in those regions inhabited by man. The domestic 
turkey came from wild ones captured in the 
earlier times and tamed in this, its native home. 

It is known, too, that if left to themselves^ 
all our farm animals will become "wild," as did 
the horses and cattle which escaped from the 
Spanish settlers in this country in early days, 
stocking the western prairies in this way. Such 
are called ferae. 

We also know that there are many wild ani- 
mals very similar to our domestic ones, so similar 
in fact, that we are quite sure they are close 
relatives and that our own have either come from 
them or from others similar to them. 

It is interesting to try to learn the origin not 
only of the different animals but of the different 
kinds or species of the same animal. "We feel 
certain that some of them came from more than 
one wild species, having originated simultaneous- 
ly, or nearly so, in different parts of the earth. 
This seems the case, for instance, with dogs. So 
many kinds, so much unlike, must have originated 
from more than one kind of wolf. The same is 
true of cattle, sheep, etc. 

Not the least striking feature of the domesti- 
cation of farm animals, is the fact that each was 
made submissive to man for a definite purpose, — 
for hunting, for burden bearing, for clothing, for 
food, etc. 



AND AGRICU LTURE. 119 

Only those necessary to man have been domes- 
ticated, hence different animals have been do- 
mesticated in different countries, for two reasons, 
first, because they had different classes of wild 
animals, and second, because their requirements 
or uses are different. Of course it is to be sup- 
posed that only the best types of each kind were 
selected, and we know that better food and care 
in domesticity has made them improve greatly. 

The relation of the number of domestic an- 
imals to the human population does not change 
rapidly. Quoting from an authority who compiles 
the information from the latest census returns, 
the average for each family, estimating the num- 
ber at sixteen million families consisting of five 
persons each, is — 

One horse or mule, 

One cow, 

Two other cattle. 

Poultry equal to one cow. 

Two and one half hogs, 

Two and one half sheep. 

Of course it must be evident that some 
families must keep and raise these animals for 
those who live in the cities and elsewhere who do 
not keep any. The families living on the farms 
in most instances have more than the average. 
The most of these animals are raised for food. In 
fact nearly all except horses and mules, event- 
ually are eaten, and these are eaten in some 
countries. 

It is estimated that a horse at work will eat, 
on an average, 100 bushels of oats, or their equiv- 



120 NATURE-SCIENCE 

alent, and one and one half tons of hay or its 
equivalent in pasturage or other "roughness" in 
a year. There is some tendency to feed horses too 
much grain. It is thought that the proper allow- 
ance of food per day for every one thousand pounds 
live weight of animals should be 20 to 25 pounds, 
half of which should be grain. 

One estimate of food for a working horse is an 
average of 22.5 lbs., dry matter for each 1000 lbs. 
live weight per day. This should contain one and 
'eight-tenths lbs. of digestible protein and eleven 
and eight-tenths lbs. of digestible carbohydrates 
and fats, a nutritive ratio of about one to seven. 

With cows it should be about the same as 
for horses, except that the nutritive ratio should 
be about one to five and one half. This suggests 
the enormous amount of food necessary to maintain 
the animal population and the large area of land 
required to produce it. No other nation in the 
world does it, or could do it. 

Th2 Horse. — It must not be inferred that our 
horses are descended from the 'Svild horses" of 
•our western prairies or from those of other 
•countries. These so-called wild horses have de- 
scended from those that have escaped from man. 
Within historic tiaies no real wild horses have 
been known. 

Investigations in comparative anatomy have 
-demonstrated that their structure is but a modi- 
fication of the same general plan upon winch the 
tapirs and rhinoceroses are formed, and the dis- 
■covery and restoration of the characters of extinct 
species, especially that conducted comparatively 



AN D AGRIOULTURE. 121 

recently in the fossiliferous strata of North Ameri- 
ca, have revealed numerous intermediate stages 
through which the existing horses appear to have 
passed in their modifications from a very differ- 
ent ancestral form. 

The remains of an animal has been found that 
seems certainly to have been a horse, much like 
the present horse except that he was much 
smaller and in place of one toe and hoof on each 
foot he had three. In deeper strata has been 
found a similar one with five toes upon each foot. 
The splint bones, the slender bones on either side 
the long bone just below the ''knee" (really the 
wrist) joint, are all that is left of the two outside 
toes of the three-toed horse. These bones are 
jointed at the top to help form the knee, and run 
to a point before they reach the fetlock joint be- 
low. 

The only relations to the horse now in exis- 
tence are the domestic ass, the wild ass of 
Abyssinia and the Zebra and the Quagga of South 
Africa. This relationship may be inferred not 
from resemblance only but also from the fact that 
both the horse and the ass occasionaly show dark 
stripes down the sides of the shoulders and fre- 
quently bars on the sides and back of the legs. 
These colors and markings come out when there 
has been some mixed breeding; when strains of 
blood have been brought together that do not 
harmonize ; when the characters of the improved 
strains "cancel out," leaving the opportunity for 
the appearance of these ancient characters long 



122 NATURE-SCIENCE 

since "bred out" except when "reversion to type" 
brings them back again. 

We can imagine the original wild horses in- 
habiting the same general regions as the wolves^ 
and, since the principal means of defense lies in 
rmming, and the wolf is also fleet of foot, horses 
developed into the fleetest and most enduring of 
animals, making them of special value to man in 
hunting, warfare, and later, as the civilization of 
man progressed, the usefulness of this most useful" 
animal increased until we note that the size, style 
and action became as various as their various uses 
and we have different breeds of horses for dilferent 
purposes. "The attempt to produce a type of 
animal to fill a certain use gives rise to a breed." 
When this attempt is made simultaneously in 
different countries we have more than one breed 
designed for the same service, differing only in 
unimportant respects. 

Thus we have the different breeds of draft 
horses, each excellent, for each of the countries, 
England, Scotland, Belgium and France. We 
have also, for example, the Percheron and the 
French Draft two types of France, as the result 
of different ideas of breeders in the same country 
with regard to the draft horse. 

The modern draft horse traces directly back 
to the large horse of the middle ages found only 
in"Flanders"(now Northern France and Belgium) ► 
The demand for a heavy horse came because of the 
increase in weight of armor, so a "charger," able 
to carry a knight and full armor for both man and 
horse was bred up from this "Flanders" stock and 



AND AGKIOULTURE. 123 



became the favorite wherever chivalry flourished 
in Western Europe. 

Fully as interesting is the history of the 
thoroughbred, beginning with the crusades in the 
twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and having its 
origin in the Arabian horse "bred for a thousand 
years and more for speed, endurance and faithful, 
ness to his master." The trotting horse of to-day- 
an American "creation," has for a foundation the 
best blood of the Arabian and the old English 
horse. 

The modern Percheron represents the French 
use of its Arabian blood which becomes fused in- 
to the common blood of the country largely in use 
upon its farms. This is why the Percheron has 
more and better action than all other draft breeds 
which have descended more directly from the orig- 
inal heavy horse without the infusion of Arabian 
blood. 

The Belgian, the Shire and the Clydesdale 
represent the old original stock of heavy "Flan- 
ders." The French Coach is the blood of the 
thoroughbred upon the best of the lighter horses 
of France. 

In America we have bred all tliese breeds in 
line with their original purpose, and we have all 
of them Americanized, so to speak, and there are 
no better horses in the world. The draft horse is 
the one the American farmer can produce most 
successfully from a marketable point of view. 

Some of the most important breeds of horses 
are as follows : — 

Draft Horses or Heavy Breeds.— 1 . The Perch- 



124 NAT URE-SCIENCE 

eron, (from the province of Perclie where they 
were developed,) France; 2. French Draft, also 
developed in France ; 3. Belgian Draft, Bel- 
gium, developed by Belgium farmers ; 4. Clydes- 
dale, Scotland; 5. Sull'olk Punch, Eastern 
England; 0. English Shire, also Eastern Eng- 
land. 

Carriage or Coach Horses, — 1. French Coach, 
France; 2. Cleveland Bay, England; 3. German 
Coach, Germany; 4. Hackney, England. 

Roadsters and Light Breeds. — 1. The Thor- 
oughbred, England; 2. American Trotter; 3. 
American Saddle Horse, bred in Kentucky and 
Virginia. 

Cattle. — The origin of our common cattle is 
not certainly known, but it is thought the original 
wild stock was found in Western Asia or South- 
ern Europe. Whatever their source, our present 
breeds are descended from European stock. 

The nearest approach to cattle in this country 
at the time of its discovery were the bison. 

Th.e so-called ''wild" cattle of the western 
plains were, like the ''wild" horses, really ferae, 
having escaped from the Spaniards in the early 
attempts at colonization. 

Our present breeds are supposed to be not 
more than one or two thousand years removed 
from wild animals, and the longest record of any 
breed is not yet one hundred and twenty-five years 
old. 

It is more than likely that all modern Euro- 
pean and American breeds of cattle have de- 
scended from the auroch, or European bison, once 



AND AGRICULTURE. 125 

widely distributed but now nearly extinct, except 
when protected in the Lithuanian forests, etc. 

Out of this original stock, if this is correct^ 
and whether of one or more species, Europe has 
produced all the modern breeds of cattle. This 
country has not produced a variety sulhciently 
improved or important to be called a distinct 
breed. To Western Europe, especially to Eng- 
land, belongs the distinction not only of improve- 
ment in breeds, but of the production of new 
breeds. 

The four great beef breeds are the Short 
Horns, the Herefords, the Aberdeen Angus and 
the Galloway. The first two came from England 
and the last two from Scotland. To these, among 
important beef cattle, may be added the Sussex, 
from the country of Sussex, England. 

The Herefords were known in England one 
hundred and fifty years ago, as Longhorns. They 
were spotted red and white with mottled faces 
and longhorns. They were used for labor, but 
came to be much used for beef about the time of 
the American revolution. By improvement they 
gradually assumed their present beautiful red 
color, with clear white faces and full white breasts 
and came to be called Herefords from the shire 
where they had been developed. No breed excels 
them on the range, that is, for makii.g beef prin- 
cipally from grass. 

About the same time, in the shire of Dur- 
ham, England, and along the river Tees, there 
progressed an improvment of a large kind 
of cattle, better milkers than the Longhorns„ 



126 NATURE-SCIENCE 

locally known as Teeswater cattle. These cattle 
received the best attention of a number of the 
best farmers of Durham, and so the Teeswater 
cattle improved and became popular over Eng- 
land, gradually becoming known as Shorthorns to 
distinguish them from the Longhorns. 

When these two breeds afterwards came to 
America, the Longhorns were called Herefords, 
after their native shire, and the Teeswater cattle 
were called, first Durham, after their native 
shire, but afterwards Shorthorns. 

While these breeds were being improved, and 
during our war for indepencence, a half-wild, 
black, shaggy, hornless lot of cattle were feeding 
on the hills of Galloway in Southwest Scotland. 
They were rough and uncouth but thick meated, 
and by improvement have come to be among the 
best beef cattle of to-day. These are the hardy, 
hornless Galloways. 

The Aberdeen Angus, named from their home, 
Aberdeen and Angus, two shires of Southeast 
Scotland, are the last, the youngest and the finest 
finished of all the beef breeds. They excel as 
yard and stall feeders, and as show-ring cattle. 
They are shiny, black and hornless, with bright 
intelligent faces and erect ears, a distinct breed 
that will never be confused with others, not even 
the shaggy, black hornless Galloways. 

The dairy breeds are the Jersey, from the Isle 
of Jersey ; the Ayrshire, from Scotland (the shire 
of Ayre;) the Holstein-Friesian, from Holland 
and Denmark ; and the Brown Swiss, from Swit- 
zerland. 



AND AGRICULTURE. 127 

Other and minor breeds are the Devons, the 
bright, quick red cattle from Devonshire, England ; 
the Dutch-Belted ; the Red-Polled, the red and 
hornless Norfolk and Suffolk, of England ; the 
Kerry, from Ireland ; the Pembroke, huge cattle 
from "Wales ; and the West Highland, fierce shag- 
gy looking cattle from Scotland. 

The typical beef cow is squarely built, back 
and loins full, stomach line parallel with the back 
line which is straight. The legs are thick and full, 
hips evenly fleshed and neck full and short. The 
face is short, the bones of fine texture, the skin 
soft and the eyes should be bright. 

The dairy cow presents a decided wedge- 
shaped appearance, from whatever point of view. 
The back line is crooked, hip bones and tail bone 
prominent, the thighs are thin and bearing little 
flesh, and there is little flesh on the back and 
shoulders. The neck is long and thin. The udder 
should be full but not fleshy, attached well behind 
and extending well forward. The skin should be 
soft and pliable and the bones should be of fine 
texture. 

A good sire is necessary to the improvement of 
a herd of cattle. The improvement from common 
stock upward is, — the first generation is one half 
pure ; the second is three-fourths pure ; the third 
is seven-eights pure; the fourth is fifteen-six- 
teenths pure, etc. 

Sheep. — It is thought the sheep was the first 
animal domesticated by man. From the earliest 
times the lamb has been the symbol of innocence. 

The nearest wild relatives of our domestic 



128 NATURE-SCIENCE 

sheep are the Big Horn of tlie Rocky Mountains 
and tlie nearly related species scattered all over 
the mountain region of western North America 
and Central Asia, etc. The camel of Western 
Asia and Northern Africa, and the Llama, Alpaca, 
Vicuna, etc., of the Andes regions of South 
America, are more remote relatives. Goats, both 
the common and the Angora, are near relatives. 

While the true origin of the sheep is not 
known, there is reason to suppose that their wild 
progenitors were of a dark color ; first, because an 
occasional black, or rather brown, sheep appears 
in our flocks and second, because these dark sheep 
have coarse, inferior wool and appear in every way 
more primitive and unimproved than the general 
average of sheep. 

In any case it is almost certain that the pro- 
genitors of our sheep w^ere inhabitants of the hills 
of Western Asia and of the region round about 
the Mediterranean Sea. They have left four dis- 
tinct types of sheep, as follows : 

1. The Persian Sheep, which is large, heavy 
and with a tendency to lay on fat at the rump and 
often on the tail itself — the so-called fat-tailed 
sheep. Most of the "fiddle strings'' of commerce 
are made in Germany from the small intestines 
of these sheep. 

2. The Fezzan Sheep of Northern Africa with 
their long legs, bulging foreheads, pendulous ears 
and heavy mane. 

3. The Merinos, or fine-wooled sheep, coming 
originally from Spain. They are generally heavily 
horned, except as the horns have recently been 



AND AGRICULTURE. 129- 

bred off, are much the smallest sheep in the world 
and carry the finest fleece known. 

4. The coarse-wooled sheep, of uncertain 
origin but of many breeds are characteristic of 
England and are extensively bred in this country. 

As has been said, the Merino sheep originated 
in Spain ; from thence they spread north into 
France, northeast into Saxony and also across the 
Atlantic into the United States. A few were 
sent by the king as a present to a friend in 
Australia, whence they spread to New Zealand. 

Those that spread into France developed intO' 
a long-legged, plain sheep with a somewhat 
lighter fleece, carrying less oil, or "grease" than 
the original Spanish Merinos. They were im- 
ported into this country a generation ago under 
the name of French Merinos, and recently they 
have commenced to come over under the name 
Rambouillet (pronounced ram boo lay). 

Those Merinos that spread to Saxony became 
very much reduced in size and in vigor, but de- 
veloped a fleece of the finest wool ever seen by 
man. This wool came into great favor, especially 
for yarn, but the growing cheapness of silk finally 
ruined the call for the Saxon fleece and this type 
of Merino is almost extinct. 

Under the hand of our breeders those brought 
to America flourished and the fiber became longer 
and finer and was given a lustre not found in the 
original Merino. One peculiar fact in this con- 
nection is that this was accomplished only with 
enormous development of wrinkles and immense- 



130 NATURE-SCIENCE 

quantities of "grease," the yellow, oily gum so 
characteristic of fine-wooled sheep. 

Those Merinos sent to Australia flourished 
and the climate proved especially favorable to the 
best development of the Merino fleece. Austra- 
lia, New Zealand and neighboring islands rapidly 
stocked themselves with Merino sheep. The 
Spanish supply was soon practically exhausted 
and the Australians soon learned that the best 
available Merinos were to be found in America. 
Prices became almost fabulous, and this trade 
became so extensive that Vermont and New 
Hampshire, then almost the only sheep raising 
states, could not supply the demand, and with the 
ixise in prices the raising of Merinos spread west- 
ward until Australia became not only full from 
■our makets, but she discovered she could not only 
produce her own breeding flocks, but *that she 
<5ould grow a better Merino and produce a better 
grade of fine wool than any other known region. 
She has been so extensively in the business ever 
since as not only to control the market in fine 
wools, but even to lead to the building of ships 
for the ''Australian frozen meat trade" with 
Europe. 

But all this time a very difl'erent class of sheep 
were extensively bred in England where the Mer- 
ino never succeeded and where sheep are bred for 
mutton rather than for wool. 

There is no evidence of any relationship be- 
tween these and the Merinos, since the origin of 
both is unkown. There is little resemblance, for 
^the English sheep are much longer and coarser 



AND AGRICULTURE. 131 

than the Merino, generally destitute of horns, 
with a longer, coarser fleece. 

From these English sheep have developed the 
modern breeds of coarse wooled sheep. These 
may be divided, however, into two classes, the 
long wools and the medium wools. 

The three classes of sheep comprise the fine- 
wooled breeds, — American Merino, Delaine Mer- 
ino and Rambouillets ; the medium wooled breed, — 
Southdowns, Oxford Downs, and Cheviot; the 
long wooled breeds, — Leicester, Lincoln and Cots- 
wold. 

Sheep serve three purposes : They make a 
good quality of meat ; they make our most useful 
clothing, which no other animal can do ; and they 
improve the land on which they are pastured. 

Swine. — The domestic pig is descended from 
either the Peccary of Central America, the Wart 
Hog of Southern Africa, the Wild Boar of West- 
ern Europe, or the Malay Hog, or Deer Hog of 
Southeastern Asia. 

From whichever he may have come, we are 
indebted to the Chinese for our swine. These 
•people succeeded in developing a very quick grow- 
ing, early maturing, but a small if not delicate 
unimal. Neither Europe, Africa, nor America 
domesticated its wild hog, but Europe, thinking 
the Chinese pigs too small and delicate, improved 
them by crossing with the larger and coarser wild 
boar. 

In this way the English breeds were pro- 
duced, especially the Berkshire, which had the 
largest amount of wild blood of any, and also the 



132 NATURE-SOIENOE 

"White" breeds of various sizes, all of which, and 
especially the smaller ones, contain a compar- 
atively high per cent of Chinese blood. 

All our breeds either came to us from Eng- 
land or else have originated here out of Englisk 
stock. 

The early European colonists in this country 
soon learned the value of Indian corn as feed for 
the pig, and so corn and the pig developed to- 
gether in America. 

The first great corn growing region of America* 
was in and about Chester County, Pennsylvania^ 
and here developed the strain of white hogs, 
founded upon English stock, and now known every- 
where as ''Chester Whites," the first American, 
breed of hogs. 

Later on when the Miami Valley became the 
great corn growing region, another breed of hogs 
was developed. At first a strong-boned, coarse^ 
upstanding spotted hog, it has developed into a> 
fine finished, truly American hog of fine form and 
of a uniform black color. It was called at first 
McGee, Warren County, Poland and finally 
Poland-China. The bulk of refining blood for its. 
formation was furnished by the American Berk- 
shire, the original of which had long before been, 
imported from England. 

The most important large breeds of hogs are^ 
Chester White, Improved Yorkshire, Tamworth,. 
Duroc-Jersey, Cheshire; among medium breeds 
are Berkshire and Poland-China; and smaller 
breeds, Victoria, Suffolk, Essex and small York- 
shire. 



AND AGRICULTURE. 133 



OUTLINE QUIZZES. 

(fifth paper.) 

1. What are the natural methods of plant 
propagation? 

2. What is necessary to the germination of 
seeds? 

3. What is a plumule? A cotyledon? 

4. What is a layer? A cutting? A cion? A 
€tock? What is budding? 

5. What salt water fish ascend rivers to 
«pawn? 

6. What are the respiratory organs of fish? 

7. What functions are ascribed to the swim- 
ming bladder of fishes? 

8. Describe the eye of a fish. 

9. What are the processes of heat transfer- 
ence? 

10. Illustrate each process of heat transfer- 
ence. 

11. What is meant by the refraction of light? 

12. What is an argillite? An aphanite? A 
porphyry? 

13. What are tides? Their cause? 

14. How have all farm animals originated? 

15. What is the meaning of Ferae? 

16. For what purpose are farm animals used? 

17. How much will a horse eat in a year? A 



cow 



9 



18. From what did the horse originate? The 
«ow? 



134 NATURE-SCIENCE 

19. What are the characteristics of the beef 
cow? A dairy cow? 

20. Trace the origin of the sheep? The pig?' 




AND AGRICULTURE. 135: 



(sixth paper.) 

«Oh, world, as God has made it ! all is beauty." 

SIXTH LESSON. 

Plants.— A study of the characteristics of 
flowers, their likenesses and their differences, by- 
comparison, in other words, the identification of 
plants, necessitates some effort at simple classifi- 
cation at least. 

The best divisions, and those determined up- 
on by botanists generally are based on the struct- 
ure of the flowers, and the fruit or the seeds. 
Some references are also made to the form and ar- 
rangement of leaves. Technical works on this 
subject have formed series of great groupes,, 
bringing together under a common head plants 
quite different in appearance but whose flowers 
are very similar. 

In the plants of the common Pulse family the- 
flowers, fruit and seed are in all formed or ar- 
ranged in the same manner, or nearly so, as we 
find by careful examination, although some are 
trees, as the redbud, the honey locust and the 
black locust ; others are shrubs, as the wisteria; 
and still others are herbs, as the peas, beans, 
vetch, clover, etc. Notice in the flowers of this 
family the sepals are more or less united, the five 
points alone being free, inside of which is the 
corolla, with its five very unlike petals. The 
stamens, too, are arranged peculiarly ; the ovary 
is simple and free from the calyx ; the fruit is 



136 NATURE-SCIENCE 

usually a one-celled pod. These points may not 
be so readily discovered in the flower of the 
■clover, but patience and close investigation will 
reveal that it is similarly arranged. This family 
is also known as leguminosae, from the Latin, 
iegumen, vegetables, pot-herbs ; this name is 
given because many of the plants of this family 
are food products. 

In like manner, it will be found that the 
plants of the rose family have flowers with no im- 
portant difference except in the ovary, and con- 
sequently in the fruit. The calyx is five-lobed, 
the petals five inserted with the stamens on a 
disk that lines the calyx-tube, and the stamens 
are usually numerous. The fruit is a pome, a 
stone fruit or a group of stone-fruits, or one to 
several akenes or follicles, seldom a berry or 
capsule. Example of flowers to study are those 
of the quince, pear, apple, crab-apple, American 
and European mountain ash, service, red haw, 
raspberry, blackberry, rose, plum, peach, cherry, 
etc. These plants are all classed in the rose 
family because their flowers have the same struct- 
ure as that of the rose. 

The Composite family is important also and 
its members are easily recognized. The flowers 
are in a dense head, on a common receptacle, sur- 
rounded by an involucre composed of many bracts. 
There are usually five stamens inserted on the 
corolla and the anthers are united into a tube 
surrounding the style. The flower heads vary not 
only in appearance but in size. The corolla is 



AND AGRICULTURE. 137 

■either strap-shaped or tubular. The fruit is an 
akene. 

Three divisions may be made of this family, 
according to the shape of the flower, some have 
both strap-shaped and tubular flowers. Among 
these are : Golden-rod asters, dasies, sunflowers, 
elecampane, daisy, fleabane, golden ragwort, 
yarrow, Black-eyed Susan, blue spring daisy, etc. 
Others have only strap-shaped leaves, as dande- 
lion, wild lettuce, chicory, etc. The third 
division consists of those which have only tubular- 
shaped blossoms, as thistle, tansy, iron-weed, 
boneset, trumpet flower, blazing star, white 
«nake-root, salt-marsh fleabane, etc. 

The blue spring daisy is the only one of these 
which appears in the spring. The Black-eyed 
Susan comes in July and the others in August, 
September and October, mostly in September. 

The golden-rod is a very popular and familiar 
flower. It should be studied as an illustration of 
a composite flower, as should also others nearly as 
familiar, as the sunflower, chicory, the thistle and 
Black-eyed Susan. Note the character of the 
petals ; the insect visitors of each ; their purpose. 

Call attention to the generic name of golden- 
rod, solidago, a word taken from the Greek, mean- 
ing ''to make whole," referring to the healing 
properties attributed to the plant. About eighty 
species of golden-rod are native to the United 
States. 

The mustard family is distinguished as con- 
sisting of herbs with pungent, watery juice, 
having four sepals and four petals, their upper 



138 NATURE-SCIENCE 

part spreading in the form of a cross, hence also 
the name gruciferae. The flowers have six 
stamens, the two outer ones shorter than the four 
inner ones and a single two-celled pistil with two 
parietal placentae forming the kind of pod called 
a silique. 

The flowers are arranged in racemes and are 
so nearly alike that an examination of the fruit 
and seed is necessary, usually, to determine the 
genera and species. The following are among the 
plants that may be studied as examples of this 
family : Pepper grass, tongue grass, horse-radish, 
mustard, water-cress, toothwort (two -leaved), 
crows foot, shepherd's purse and sweet alyssum. 

The plants of the lily family are mostly herbs 
with regular symmetrical flowers, perianth free 
from the ovary ; stamens, nearly always six, one 
before each division of the perianth ; 
ovary usually three-celled fruit, a pod or berry. 
The divisions of the perianth are colored nearly 
alike, with one exception. Plants of this family 
which may be interesting study are : White 
hellebore, Indian poke, garlics, wild onion, lilies, 
tulips, adder's tongue, dog-tooth violet, hya- 
cinths, asparagus, Solomon's seal, lily-of-the- 
valley, trillium. 

The mint family comprises mostly herbs, with 
square stems with opposite leaves, more or less 
aromatic. It will be noticed that the leaves are 
without stipules, and the flowers are generally in 
cyme-like clusters, auxiliary, and often grouped 
in terminal spikes or racemes. The calyx is tubu- 
lar, usually two-lipped. Corolla also usually two- 



AND AGRICULTURE. 139' 



lipped. Stamens, four, two long and two short,, 
or sometimes there are only two stamens. The 
fruit consists of four nutlets, corresponding to the 
four deep lobes of the ovary. The plants for study 
comprised in this family are horehound, catnip, 
motherwort, garden sage, garden thyme, mint, etc. 
The grass family consists mostly of herbs 
with usually hollow stems closed and enlarged at 
the nodes. The leaves are alternate two-ranked 
with sheathing bases split open on the side oppo- 
site the blade. 

The flowers are nearly or quite destitute of 
floral envelopes, solitary, and borne in the axile of 
scaly bracts called glumes. The fruit is a grain.. 
They should be distinguished from sedges which 
have usually solid, triangular stem, and three 
ranked leaves whose base, when sheathing is not 
slit. Examples of grasses, Wheat, Indian Corn, 
Timothy, etc. 

In the study of all these families their useful- 
ness to man and their utility in the economy of 
nature should be kept in mind and emphasized as 
occasion presents itself. For example, in the 
consideration of the Pulse or Leguminose family, 
in the growing season a clover plant should be dug: 
up. The little swollen points or places in the 
roots called nodules or tubercles are the home of 
the bacteria, which in their development take the 
nitrogen from the air. At their death, which oc- 
curs in a short time, this nitrogen is available for 
common plants which need large amounts of ni- 
trogen. Not being able to get their own supply 
from the atmosphere, they are dependent en- 



140 NATURE-SCIENCE 

tirely upon the soil supply which is never large 
and which is soon exhausted by growing crops and 
by rains. It is necessary then that the same 
supply of soil nitrogen be kept up in some way. 
It is too expensive to do so by supplying it in the 
form of Commercial fertilizers, since it is esti- 
mated that in this form it will require about four 
pounds at, say, fifteen cents per pound to grow a 
single bushel of wheat. By growing clover or 
other leguminous crops, thus securing nitrogen 
from the air through the root tubercles it can be 
obtained for nothing. Plants may be classified as 
nitrogen producers and nitrogen exhausters. Only 
those plants whose roots have nodules or tubercles 
produce nitrogen. 

Animal Studies — Interest in these studies will 
not be lessened by selecting types whose activities 
are known and can be studied from a practical 
standpoint. We shall now study a few insects, 
both injurious and beneficial. 

Injurious Insects. — The Hessian Fly derives its 
name from the probability of its having been in- 
troduced into this country with the bedding straw 
of the Hessian soldiers during the Revolutionary 
War. It has two broods as the flies appear in the 
spring and in the autumn. At each of these times 
the fly, a minute, two winged insect, lays twenty 
or thirty eggs in the crease of the leaf of a young 
plant. In about four days in warm weather, they 
hatch, and the pale red larvae crawl down the leaf 
working their way in between it and the main 
stalk, passing downward, till they come to a joint 
just above which they remain, a little below the 



AND A GRICULTURE. 141 

surface of the ground, with the head toward the 
root of the plant. Two or three larvae are suf- 
ficient to weaken a plant by sucking the sap and 
by embedding themselves, by simple pressure of 
the body, in the side of the stem. In five or six 
weeks the larvae are full grown. Their skin 
hardens, becomes brown, then turns to a bright 
chestnut color. This is the puparium or flax-seed 
state. In two or three weeks the semipupa be- 
comes detached from the old one. The larvae 
remains through the winter in this puparium. 
Towards the beginning of May the pupa becomes 
fully developed and about the last of May it 
emerges from the brown puparium "wrapped in a 
thin white skin which soon breaks and is then at 
liberty." The flies lay their eggs on the young 
wheat for a period of three weeks, and then dis- 
appear. The larvae from these eggs take the 
flax-seed form in June and July and most of them 
are thus left on the stubble at harvest time. The 
best preventative against their attacks is to burn 
the stubble. There are four known parasites on 
the Hessian Fly, one of which preys on the eggs, 
another on the larvae, and the other destroys it in 
the flax-seed state. 

The Chinch Bug, while it does most damage, 
perhaps, to the wheat crop, infests also oats, corn, 
sugar cane, in fact all kinds of grain. The young 
bug is at first wingless and of a bright red color, 
changing with age to brown or black and are 
marked with a white band across the back. It is 
said that the female is occupied about twenty 
days in laying her eggs, about 500 in number. 



142 NATURE -SCIENCE 

The larvae hatches in fifteen days and there are 
two broods in a season, the first maturing from 
i;he middle of July to the middle of August and 
the second late in the autumn. The eggs are laid 
•in the ground usually at the depth of an inch or 
more. It is also stated that some of them con- 
tinue alive in concealment during the winter. 
Long continued, wet, cloudy, cool weather is not 
farvorable to their development. The early sowing 
of small grain in the spring and the burning of all 
straw, weeds, stalks, etc., on or near the ground 
to be cultivated discourage their multiplication. 

The Corn Worm, or Boll Worm, is the insect 
whose larvae are found in the tips of corn ears. 
In some portions of the country as in parts of 
Southern Kansas, scarcely an ear of corn is free of 
it. It is an enemy to cotton also, and attacks 
«ven beans, peas and other garden vegetables. 
The larvae grows to a length of about one and one- 
half inches, then buries itself in the ground where 
it becomes a brown chrysalid, and emerges as a 
vclay-yellow moth in three or four weeks. 

The Cabbage Butterfly was introduced from 
Europe into Quebec about 1859 and soon became 
abundant in the United States. It is now our com- 
mon white butterfly, and perhaps the only one we 
are justified in destroying. A single one of these 
butterflies has been known to contain between 400 
and 500 eggs. 

The Colorado Potato Beetle reaches the adult 
«tage within a month after hatching from the 
yellowish eggs. The larvae are pale yellow with 
.a reddish twinge and a lateral row of black dots. 



AND AGRICULTURE. 143 

The adults pass the winter in the ground, emerg- 
ing late in the spring, just in time to lay their 
eggs upon the young potato leaves. The larvae 
devour the leaves to such an extent as to some- 
times cut off the entire crop in some localities. 
The loss to this country alone from the ravages of 
this beetle is enormous each year. There are var- 
ious beetles, hemiptera, and a species of Tachina 
Fly which prey upon the larvae. A mixture of 
one part of Paris Green to twenty of flour or 
plaster sprinkled upon the potato plants the first 
one or two weeks after they come up will prac- 
tically destroy the beetle for the season. 

Aphids or Plant Lice. — Among the most trouble- 
some insects are those which live upon nearly 
every useful plant, puncturing the plant and 
sucking the sap. That which infests the corn, the 
corn louse, attacks the roots ; the grape phyllaxera 
lives on both the roots and leaves and even on the 
bark. Most species, however, attack the young 
fruit, leaves and the buds, as the peach tree aphid, 
the green apple tree aphid, and the aphids which 
infest the rose, the elm and other shrubs and 
trees. 

All these aphids make interesting and profit- 
able study. Many species excrete a sweet fluid 
through a minute pair of tubes on the back. This 
fluid, called honeydew, is injurious to trees, etc., 
since it makes various mildews possible. These 
are the aphids cared for by ants for their excretion. 
Many kinds of aphids produce also a white, 
powdery, downy growth as a means of protec- 



144 NATURE-SCIENCE 

tion by concealment or by rendering themselves- 
unpalatable to birds. 

Apliids have antennae with from five to seven 
joints ; beak three-jointed and developed in both 
sexes ; legs long and slender with two-jointed 
tarsi ; males and females are winged and also the 
last brood of asexual ones, but the early summer 
broods are wingless. Of the many species whose 
life story is practically the same, local conditions 
and interests will determine largely which shall 
be studied. 

Cutworms are the caterpillars of the different 
species of the owlet moths. These are the cater- 
pillars which cut off the very young plants of field 
and garden even with the earth. The larvae feed 
at first upon the tender grass roots and the roots 
of other plants, but they are ready for their de- 
structive business early in the spring when they 
have attained a growth of about one inch in 
length. They are not known to have any insect 
enemies, but plants are somewhat protected from 
their ravages by placing a cylinder of stiff paper 
or tin about six inches in length about the plant, 
so that it enters at the lower end about an inch 
into the earth. No poisonous preparation has 
proved effective in their destruction. Robins and 
toads assist in their destruction, but these assist- 
ants are not usually sufficiently numerous in a 
locality to retard their multiplication materially^ 

Tent Caterpillars. — The moths of this insect 
lay their eggs on the slender twigs of trees, mostly 
of the apple and wild cherry, in the month of 
July. The very small black caterpillars are de- 



AND AGRICULTURE. 145 

velcped during the summer and remain curled up 
within the egg shell during the winter and fall, 
after hatching just as the leaves are unfolding 
and forming a web under which tlie colony lives. 
TJiey feed on the tender buds, etc., and build 
their tents. They may be destroyed by previously 
searching for the bunches of eggs on the twigs be- 
fore the tree is leaved out, and the caterpillars 
may be killed with a brush or mop dipped into 
strong soap-suds, or a weak solution of petroleum. 
The larvae are about two inches long, hairy, with 
a dorsal white stripe, with numerous fine crinkled 
black lines on a yellow ground ; united below into 
a common black band, with a blue spot on the 
side of each ring. The moth which appears in 
July, is reddish brown, with two oblique, dirty 
white lines on the fore wings. 

The peach tree borer has been destructive to 
practically all pea^h trees in nearly the whole 
United States within the past twenty years. The 
moth resembles a species of wasp and appears 
from the last of June to the first of September 
during which time it deposits its eggs on the 
trunks of peach and plum trees within a foot and 
a half of the ground. These eggs are quite numer- 
ous, are glued to the bark, and hatch out in about 
a week. The larva crawls under the outer bark 
and bores into the juicy inner bark where it re- 
mains feeding, except in freezing weather, for 
about ten months. It then emerges, makes its 
cocoon close to the ground on the tree trunk, 
and in about three weeks emerges as a moth to 
begin its life story over again. 



146 NATURE-SCIENCE 



The Codling Moth, or Apple Worm was im- 
ported from Europe, and it is estimated that it 
now causes a loss of from 25 to 75 per cent of the 
apple crop alone in this country and Canada, as 
well as causing great loss of other fruits, as crab 
apples, pears, quinces, and even plums, apricots 
and cherries. The cocoon may be found from 
October to May under the bark scales of apple or 
pear trees, etc., or in crevices about places where 
fruit has been stored. The moths emerge late in 
May or early in June and they may be known by 
a horse shoe of copper-colored scales on the front 
wing. Very soon they begin to lay their eggs on 
the growing fruit or on the leaves near by. The 
larvae hatch in a few days, burrow into the core 
;from the blossom end, andmature in three weeks, 
when, if the apple does not fall, they spin to the 
ground after eating their way out through the side 
of the apple and crawl to the trunk of the tree, or 
'they may crawl down the branches after eating 
their way out, and make their cocoons again un- 
der the bark. 

The most effective means for their extermin- 
ation used by fruit growers is to scrape all loose 
bark from the trees early in July and fasten a 
wisp of straw or a band of burlap or heavy paper 
around the trunk ; then remove these bands and 
collect and destroy all larvae at least once a week 
during the month of July. 

Beneficial Insects. — The ichneumon Hies, which 
are parasitic upon other insects, comprise several 
thousand species. The eggs are laid by the parent 
either on the outside or within the caterpillar or 



AND AGRICULTURE. 147 

other larva on which the young is fed. When 
hatched it devours the fatty portion of its victim 
which gradually dies of exhaustion. The ovipos- 
itor of some species is very long and is fitted for 
boring through very dense substances. When 
about to enter the pupa state the larva spins a 
cocoon, consisting in the larger species of an inner 
covering and escapes as a fly through the skin of 
the caterpillar. 

The principal study of these insects should be 
in the observation of their habits and mode of life 
and the part they play in Nature's great plan. 

The braconids and chalcis flies are only sub- 
divisions of ichneumons and are among the most 
important of these valuable insects. 

The syrphus flies owe their importance to the 
fact that their larvae prey upon plant lice and other 
soft bodied insects. There are more than three 
hundred different species of them. 

The tachina flies resemble house flies in form. 
They have a stout bristly appearance and their 
larvae are parasitic upon almost all insects. The 
white, oval eggs are deposited upon the body of a 
caterpillar, or even of some insects, where they 
stick as tightly as if glued. On hatching, the 
maggots burrow into the victim, feeding upon 
the tissues and juices. The larva spins no cocoon, 
but the outer skin hardens into an oval case called 
the pupa case or puparium where the larvae 
change into pupae from where they emerge as full 
^rown flies in about ten days. 

"Lady birds or lady beetles are well known 
from their hemispherical form ; generally red or 



148 NATURE-SCIENCE 

yellow color, with round or lunate blackepots. 
The species, numbering more than one thousand, 
are difficult to discriminate. The yellow long oval 
eggs are laid in patches, often in a group of plant 
lice which the larvae eagerly devour. Both larvae 
and adults feed upon the plant lice, eggs and 
larvae of other insects. 

It will be profitable also to study other beetles 
serviceable in destroying injurious insects, as Hon 
beetles, tiger beetles and bombardier beetles. The 
first feed upon caterpillars, corn worms, and one 
species devours corn worms. 

Dragon files, damsel flies, and caddis flies 
will also amply repay observation and study. 

Agriculture. 

(sixth paper.) 
BACTERIA. 

Scientists have had some difficulty in deciding 
whether bacteria are plants or animals. Their 
food and what little structure they possess would 
indicate that they are plants closely related to the 
fungi. 

They exist by millions everywhere, or rather, 
they may exist anywhere, in the air, in the water 
and most other liquids, in the soil or on the sur- 
face of objects. They are so small that the aid of 
a microscope is necessary to distinguish them. 
In form, some are spherical, others are cylindrical 
some are spiral, and many are bent and twisted, 
the elongated forms, into queer shapes. It re- 
quires several thousand, laid side by side or end 
to end, to make a line an inch in length. 



AND AGRICULTURE. 149 



Their discoverj'^ is attributed to Anton van 
Leeuwenhoek in 1683. It was left to Robert Koch 
and Louis Pasteur, in 1880 to demonstrate their 
power to cause disease. Bacteria are so small 
they are thus taken into dust particles in the air 
and thus taken into the body with the breath, or 
with water or milk. 

Not all bacteria are harmful. Some are very 
useful indeed and not enough is known of others 
to determine whether they are harmful or useful 
'to mankind. 

The single bacteria consists of a single cell, 
.and, small as it is, this simple cell carries on all 
the processes of life. 

They multiply by division. That is, the sim- 
ple cell divides into parts, making two cells in- 
stead of one. This process continues, each of 
these two cells after growing for a short time 
-dividing and thus making four cells. These four 
in like manner produce eight, the eight produce 
sixteen, and so on. It has been found that some 
kinds divide at intervals as short as half an hour 
while others require a longer time. It may 
thus be seen how very rapidly they may multi- 
ply. Too great an increase, however, may soon 
exhaust the food supply in any one place, or they 
may be poisoned by effect of too many living in a 
small colony. 

Moisture is necessary for their propagation 
and growth. As spores they are on all dry sub- 
stances, and in tliat state they are dormant, just 
-as we have in seeds or bulbs dormant life in high- 
er plants. In this condition bacteria may exist 



150 NATURE-SCIENCE 

for a considerable time, in some instances for 
years, to become active when the necessary moist- 
ure is supplied. 

It is in the spore state that bacteria are car- 
ried in large numbers everywhere in the dust of 
the air, because of their light, dry condition and 
their minuteness. 

They are also carried by clothing, the hands, 
etc., from contact with surfaces on which they ex- 
ist, and disease germs are thus scattered, soon to 
find lodgement where conditions are more favor- 
able to their development and multiplication. 

They may be carried in various ways, from 
place to place, after the stirring up of dust from 
the street, or in the house or barn ; they do not 
rise and float away from a moist or liquid surface. 

While a certain amount of heat is necessary 
to the developement of bacteria, too much heat 
will destroy them. Freezing will stop their growth 
but will not destroy them ; when a sufRcient. 
amount of heat is afterwards added, they renew 
their activity. 

Certain chemical preparations called germicides 
mostly poisons, are prepared to destroy them, but 
a preparation that kills one species frequently has 
no eflect upon others. 

The food of bacteria must necessarily be in a. 
liquid condition. "When the temperature is suit- 
able the bacteria flourish and cause decomposition 
in dead animal or vegetable matter in a moist 
state. In case of the lowering of the temperat- 
ure to a certain degree, their action ceases but it 
begins again with a rise of temperature to a propj 



AND AGRICULTURE. 151 



er degree. It will be noted that living, health j 
plants and animals have poAver to resist their at- 
tacks. Decay of dead animal or vegetable matter 
is always due to the growth of bacteria. 

Bacteria, since they form part of the dnst, 
may enter the body with the air during respir- 
ation. Nature has provided the nostrils with mu- 
cous membrane, one function of which is to 
prevent all particles of dust from entering the 
lungs. If air is breathed through the mouth, dusfc 
may be taken into the lungs and with it the germs 
of diphtheria, grippe, pneumonia, tuberculosis, 
etc., may be communicated. These germs get 
into the air mainly through sputum, which after 
drying may be taken up by the wind. Hence we 
have regulations by the authorities with regard 
to spitting in public places. These are estab- 
lished for the safety of the public and should be 
carefully heeded. 

Germs that enter the system with food or 
drink are those of typhoid fever, cholera and 
other intestinal diseases. For this reason care 
should be taken to destroy all those germs to pre- 
vent their gaining access to drinking water, etc. 

The cleanliness and the proper ventilation of 
all public buildings, which are nearly always 
centers of infection, cannot be too strongly em- 
phasized. 

We have already spoken of the relation of 
bacteria to the soil in the leguminous plants. It 
must also be noted the decomposition of both 
plants and animals, due to bacteria, returns to 
the earth as much substance as has been taken 



152 NATURE-SCIENCE 

from it in their growth, besides preventing the 
accumulation of the bodies of dead plants and an- 
imals. Permitting a piece of laud to "rest" by 
permitting it to grow up in weeds, is nothing 
more than alfording bacteria an opportunity to 
decompose the weeds, which have served as forage 
and breeding places for innumerable insects and 
other small animals, as well as these creatures 
themselves, in order that they may enrich the soil. 
It is well known that bacteria live aleo in the 
soil, helping to decompose the organic matter 
mixed with it. They exist at a depth not greater 
than five or six feet, however, decreasing down- 
ward to that depth. 

Low, wet soil, because of the acids held in 
solution, prevent the growth and action of bac- 
teria. Drainage and a good circulation of the air 
in such soils is the remedy, since the washing out 
of the acids gives the bacteria an opportunity to 
work. 

The farmer stores liis grain and hay in dry 
condition to prevent the action of bacteria, moulds 
and fungi. Apples and other fruits, as well as 
meats, are dried in order to preserve them, for 
the same reason, since moisture encourages and 
promotes the development of bacteria, etc. 

Low temperature prevents bacteria from grow- 
ing and multiplying, hence fruits, vegetables and 
meats are kept in cold storage except when the 
temperature is naturally sufficiently low as in 
winter. 

Salt and sugar are also good preservatives of 
fruit and meats, since bacteria cannot live in 



AND AGRICULTURE. 153 



them when properly prepared. The sugar must 
be dry, usually, and the fruit with which it is 
used must be cooked to drive out the water they 
contain. 

Bacteria in the Dairy. — When milk leaves the 
udder of the^cow, the gas which is predominant, 
carbonic acid gas, begins to pass from the milk 
and gases of the air takes its place. This is 
brought by the natural diffusion and solubility of 
gases. As soon as milk leaves the udder of the 
cow it comes in contact with germ life ; it is the 
germ life which is controlled largely by the con- 
ditions of the milk ; in it there are germs of many 
kinds, some of which flourish readily where there 
are traces of oxygen only, and others where there 
is an abundance of oxygen. These germs produce 
the various fermentation of milk, consequently it 
makes a difference in the character of the fer- 
mentation whether there is an abundant supply of 
oxygen or not. Bacteriologists have shown that 
where only traces of oxygen are present in a fer- 
menting substance as milk, there is more likely 
to result from the fermentation products which 
are really detrimental to the body. Hence the 
matter of methods of aeration of milk for the ad- 
dition of oxygen when not properly done naturally 
is engaging the attention of dairy men. 

The agitation of milk aids aeration, and 
since during the few moments immediately after 
milking the interchange of gases between the air 
and milk is greater, it follows that where milking 
is in process the air must be pure, otherwise the 
foulness of the air must be incorporated in the 



154 NATURE-SCIENCE 

milk. What must be the condition of the air in a 
stall where all sorts of fermentation are going on 
and in which are odors of diverse kinds. These 
obnoxious substances are in the air and must pas& 
into the milk with the air. It is well known that 
the souring of milk is caused by bacteria. These 
bacteria are in the air, on the hair of the cow, in 
the dust that may rise from the floor, from the 
feed, and they may even be on the milker's 
hands. When these bacteria fall into the milk 
they begin to grow and soon change the sugar of 
the milk to an acid, provided the milk is of the 
proper temperature. A moderate degree of heat 
is all that is needed. 

Milk kept in a deep well, in a spring house,, 
or on ice may remain sweet for some time. The 
cooling process does not destroy the germs, but 
simply retards their action. The germs still are 
there and will cause the milk to sour when a suf- 
ficiently high temperature is restored. Boiling 
from a few minutes to an hour will destroy bac- 
teria, and this is resorted to when disease produc- 
ing germs are suspected to be present. The boil- 
ing, however produces a flavor that is objection- 
able to some. 

Bacteria are important factors in the making 
of butter and cheese, since upon them depend the 
flavor. Before cream can make butter of good 
flavor, it must ''ripen," that is, it must be kept 
at a proper temperature until it sours. We have- 
learned that bacteria brings out the souring pro- 
cess, and upon this the flavor depends. When, 
several species of bacteria work in the same- 



AND AGRICULTURE. 155 



cream, the butter made from cream is poor in 
quality. Each species produces a flavor peculiar 
to itself. Expert butter-makers are able to con- 
trol the species and growth of the bacteria they 
wish to use to produce a high flavored article. 
If any bacteria survive after the butter is made, 
they cause the butter to become rancid. To keep 
well, butter should have the water well worked 
out and considerable common salt mixed in to 
discourage any remaining bacteria. 

Cheese making is dependent in the same way 
upon growth of bacteria. Except in the mechan- 
ical process of preparation and the time required 
to mature, the conditions are not essentially dif- 
ferent from those of butter-making. 

In most instances, also, vinegar is produced 
by the direct action of bacteria. The action of 
the bacteria is upon the sugar in the liquid used. 
The necessary conditions of temperature and 
moisture being present, they change the sugar to 
carbon dioxid, which passes off in bubbles from 
the surface of the liquid, and alcohol, which later 
becomes oxidized by the action of other bacteria,, 
make a weak solution of acetic acid, or vinegar. 
The "mother of vinegar" is only the vast colonies 
of bacteria grown into a slimy mass. Boiled cider 
keeps sweet, since the heat killed the bacteria it 
contains, if kept sealed so that no others can en- 
ter. 

Fire blight of apple and pear trees, one of th& 
most injurious of fruit diseases, is caused by bac- 
teria. They grow and multiply in the cambiun^ 
layers, hence the tree suifers, as is shown by th« 



156 NATUR E-SCIENCE 

blackened twigs and the withered blackened 
leaves. The only remedy is to cut away the twig 
about a foot below the blackened portion. Some- 
times it becomes necessary to cut down and de- 
stroy the entire tree. After pruning such twigs 
*or limbs as have been thus afflicted, it is best to 
Bterilize the knife blade by dipping it into a solu- 
.tion of carbolic acid, in order to prevent spread- 
ing the disease by cutting into the healthy wood 
«of other trees. The germ may also be harbored 
in the crab, the quince, the hawthorne, etc. They 
.gain access to the tree through the blossoms or 
through some wound in the bark. 

It is difficult to distinguish bacteria from 
jreasts and moulds without the aid of the best 
mircroscopes. The study of these micro-organisms 
is very interesting and highly important. Enough 
iias been given to at least create a desire for 
iurther study and experiment. 

Naturr-g»rtf nr? txnh Agrtrultur^. 

OUTLINE QUIZZES. 
(sixth paper.) 

1. Upon what is the best classifications of 
j)lants based? 

2. What is the form of the fruit in the pulse 
family? 

3. Why are leguminous plants so named? 

4. Name the principal plants of the Rose 
family. 

5. What characterizes the llowers of the 
-composite family? 



AND AGRICULTURE. 157 

6. What distinguishes the flowers of the 
mustard family? 

7. How would j^ou distinguish the grasses? 

8. How are plants dependent upon bacteria? 

9. Why is the Hessian fly so called? Where 
do these flies lay their eggs? 

10. Upon what plant do they live? In what 
way do they injure the plant? 

11. What plants are injured by chinch bugs? 
In what way? 

12. Where does the chinch bug deposit its 
eggs? 

13. How long has the cabbage butterfly ex- 
isted in this country? 

14. What are aphidae? 

15. Are bacteria plants or animals? 

16. Where do bacteria exist? What is their 
form? 

17. How do bacteria reproduce themselves? 

18. What is necessary to the development 
of bacteria? 

19. In what condition must the food of the 
bacteria be supplied? 

20. In what ways are bacteria beneficial? 
In what ways are they injurious? 



JAW 20 1905 



